Design for Inclusion: Creating
a New Marketplace
(Online
Version) National Council on Disability
1331 F Street, NW, Suite 850
Washington, DC 20004
This report is also available in alternative formats
and on NCD’s award-winning Web site (www.ncd.gov).
Publication date: October 28, 2004
202-272-2004 Voice
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202-272-2022 Fax
Note: The views contained in this report do not necessarily
represent those of the Administration, as this and all NCD documents
are not subject to the A-19 Executive Branch review process.
Reference herein to any specific commercial product,
process, or service by trade name, trademark, manufacturer, or otherwise
does not constitute or imply its endorsement by the National Council
on Disability.
October 28, 2004
The President
The White House
Washington, D.C. 20500
Dear Mr. President:
On behalf of the National Council on Disability (NCD),
I am submitting a report entitled, Design for Inclusion: Creating
a New Marketplace. This report aims to educate designers and manufacturers
about the way electronic and information technology (E&IT) intersects
with the needs of individuals with disabilities, and how designing
with access in mind can significantly increase the size of targeted
markets for E&IT.
Designing with access in mind can be accomplished
through universal design. Universal design is a process to ensure
that electronic and information technology is inclusive, accessible,
and usable by everyone, including people with disabilities. Incorporating
universal design processes when developing E&IT is one solution
to accommodating people with disabilities that also improves the
usability of the products for the rest of the population. NCD’s
research attempts to understand the market for universally designed
mainstream consumer products and services, document successful universal
design development processes, understand consumer needs, understand
universal design facilitators and barriers, and identify and address
current issues in universal design.
This research falls at a time when understanding and
incorporating universal design into the development process are
most crucial. We are in the window of opportunity for implementing
Section 508 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 (as amended). Section
508 requires the Federal Government to purchase accessibly designed
E&IT. If progress is not made quickly in improving the skills
of government and industry employees on accessibility issues, the
window will soon shut with little having been accomplished.
Progress must be made now, and the purpose of this
report is to present the information and recommendations that will
guide this progress.
Sincerely,
Lex Frieden
Chairperson
(The same letter of transmittal was sent to the President
Pro Tempore of the U.S. Senate and the Speaker of the U.S. House
of Representatives.)
1331 F Street, NW ¢ Suite 850 ¢ Washington, DC 20004
202-272-2004 Voice ¢ 202-272-2074 TTY ¢ 202-272-2022 Fax
¢ www.ncd.gov
National Council on Disability Members and
Staff
Members
Lex Frieden, Chairperson, Texas
Patricia Pound, First Vice Chairperson, Texas
Glenn Anderson, Ph.D., Second Vice Chairperson, Arkansas
Milton Aponte, J.D., Florida
Robert R. Davila, Ph.D., New York
Barbara Gillcrist, New Mexico
Graham Hill, Virginia
Joel I. Kahn, Ph.D., Ohio
Young Woo Kang, Ph.D., Indiana
Kathleen Martinez, California
Carol Novak, Florida
Anne M. Rader, New York
Marco Rodriguez, California
David Wenzel, Pennsylvania
Linda Wetters, Ohio
Staff
Ethel D. Briggs, Executive Director
Jeffrey T. Rosen, General Counsel and Director of Policy
Mark S. Quigley, Director of Communications
Allan W. Holland, Chief Financial Officer
Julie Carroll, Attorney Advisor
Joan M. Durocher, Attorney Advisor
Martin Gould, Ed.D., Senior Research Specialist
Geraldine Drake Hawkins, Ph.D., Program Analyst
Pamela O’Leary, Interpreter
Brenda Bratton, Executive Assistant
Stacey S. Brown, Staff Assistant
Carla Nelson, Office Automation Clerk
Dedication
This National Council on Disability report is dedicated to Ronald
Mace, “a nationally and internationally recognized architect,
product designer, and educator whose design philosophy challenged
convention and provided a design foundation for a more usable world.
He coined the term ‘universal design’ to describe the
concept of designing all products and the built environment to be
aesthetic and usable to the greatest extent possible by everyone,
regardless of their age, ability, or status in life.” (The
Center for Universal Design)
Acknowledgments
The National Council on Disability (NCD) wishes to express its appreciation
to W. Bradley Fain of Georgia Tech Research Institute (GTRI), who
was the principal investigator for this project. Researchers in
GTRI’s Electronic Systems Laboratory performed the work documented
in this report. NCD acknowledges the contributions of Steve Jacobs
of the Ideal Group, who performed the market definition and research
of this report. NCD also acknowledges the participation of the industry
partners that supported the industry study portion of this research.
The industry partners provided invaluable insight into the impact
of Section 508 on business and the barriers and facilitators relating
to the adoption of universal design principles. NCD also acknowledges
the donation of equipment and services utilized during the user
study portion of the research. The following companies provided
products and services, at no cost to the project, for user testing:
HP, Nokia, and SENCORE Electronic Test Equipment.
NCD would also like to acknowledge the efforts of Gerry Field, WGBH
Boston, for providing a closed captioning test stream used in user
testing.
Table of Contents Executive
Summary
Introduction
Section A: The Definition of Universal
Section B: Description of the Research Process
Section C: Selection of the Product Lines for
the Study
Section D: Definition of the Market Environment-Literacy
Section E: Customer Analysis
Section F: Analysis of the International Market
Section G: User Study
Section H: Product Analysis: Breakdown by Disability
Groups
Section I: Industry Study
Section J: Discussion
Section K: Conclusions
List of Acronyms and Abbreviations
Bibliography
Appendix
List of Tables
Table 1: Candidate Product Lines
Table
2: Candidate Product Line Evaluation Results
Executive
Summary
Designing with access in mind can significantly increase
the size of targeted markets for electronic and information technology
(E&IT). Good business practice dictates that designers and engineers
avoid unintentionally excluding large populations of consumers from
accessing and using the E&IT they develop and manufacture. People
with disabilities are at the highest risk of exclusion. Other consumer
groups are also at risk. They are—
- Individuals 65+ years old
- Consumers living in low-bandwidth information infrastructures
- People who never learned to read
- Users of English as a Second Language (ESL)
- Tourists and people living in multilingual societies
- Consumers living in high-density populations
Designing with access in mind can be accomplished
through universal design (UD). Universal design is a process to
ensure that E&IT is inclusive, accessible, and usable by everyone,
including people with disabilities. Accessible design is a step
forward when developing E&IT products, but it tends to lead
to technologies that will be used separately, or in addition to,
the main E&IT product, which diminishes the effectiveness of
designing for all. Incorporating UD processes when developing E&IT
is one solution to accommodating people with disabilities that also
improves the usability of the products for the rest of the population.
The National Council on Disability (NCD) undertook
this research to understand the market for universally designed
mainstream consumer products and services, document successful UD
development processes, understand consumer needs, understand UD
facilitators and barriers, and identify and address current issues
in universal design. This research comes at a time when understanding
and incorporating UD into the development process are most crucial.
We are in the window of opportunity for implementing section 508.
If progress is not made quickly in improving the skills of government
and industry employees on accessibility issues, the window will
soon shut with little having been accomplished. If industry does
not see that federal agencies are serious about implementing section
508 in a consistent manner, companies will shift the monetary and
human resources needed for improving accessibility to product development
opportunities that offer a higher return on investment. Progress
must be made now, and the purpose of this report is to present the
information and recommendations that will guide this progress.
Through this research, NCD aims to educate designers
and manufacturers about how electronic and information technology
intersects with the needs of individuals with disabilities. In addition
to providing knowledge about disabilities, we see the importance
here and now of educating individuals on universal design. Currently,
many business people have never heard of UD, and many of those who
have do not understand that it is more than just a design for disability.
This research aims to provide businesses with the knowledge of UD
methods they need to clearly see how their complex products can
be made accessible in a cost-effective way.
As part of this research, six product lines were
analyzed from the telecommunications, software, consumer electronics,
and digital services industries for both accessibility and usability.
We estimated how useful these products are to people with disabilities
and whether the products conformed to section 508 standards and
section 255 guidelines. We were able to present recommendations
for improving such products. At a time when the incorporation of
universal design is crucial, NCD hopes that the information provided
in this report will motivate and drive the development of more universally,
accessibly designed E&IT.
Important Findings and Recommendations
User Study. The purpose of the user study
was to document and understand user experiences with the six product
lines under study. The experiences and thoughts of the consumer
with a disability provided important insight into the future design
of accessible products and can potentially influence the universal
design process. The key findings of the user study are as follows:
- Users with disabilities are often asked to pay
high prices for phones with feature sets that are not useful to
them.
- Rapid changes in technology often cause decreases
in accessibility.
- Users are reluctant to adopt technologies that
have proven frustrating in the past.
- Users have difficulty finding devices that match
their functional capabilities because of the lack of familiarity
sales associates have with accessibility features.
- Users are reluctant to invest in technologies that
have an unproven accessibility record.
- Accessibility solutions must consider the needs
of the individual with disabilities.
Substantial increases in accessibility will be required
before increased sales to members of the disability community are
realized.
Product Analysis. A detailed
product line analysis was conducted for each of the product lines
selected for study. The purpose of this research was to document
accessibility issues that prevent people with disabilities from
fully accessing the selected products and to document accessibility
features that either are currently offered or could be offered by
manufacturers. The end result of this product analysis was the assignment
of an accessibility grade to each product line for each disability
group. These grades may be useful to designers and manufacturers
to identify the target populations that should be consulted during
the design process so that more accessible design features are incorporated
into new products.
Industry Study. The purpose
of the industry study was to document UD practices within industries
represented by the six product lines selected for study. Five categories
of facilitators and barriers to accessible design were examined:
design, organizational, informational, financial, and legal. A discussion
of these barriers and facilitators as experienced by the six companies
is included in this section.
In addition, 11 business concerns were identified
as having an influence on UD practices within an organization. Each
business concern had a different level of influence, depending on
the strength of the other factors. The factors influencing the adoption
of UD practices included the business case, strategy and policy,
demand and legislation, marketing and sales, research, design, testing,
resource allocation and funding, organization and staff, training,
and the customer and consideration of people with disabilities.
All the companies that participated in the industry
study have made strategic decisions to address the accessibility
of their products and services. A few of the companies had long-standing
accessibility programs that were reinvigorated by the technical
requirements of section 508. Other companies initiated their accessibility
activities while planning for their response to section 508. In
both cases, section 508 clearly has had an impact on the way accessibility
and UD are being addressed by industry. The industry study found
that the most common approaches to addressing accessibility issues
are—
- Increasing awareness of employees
- Integrating accessibility requirements into the
design process
- Performing accessibility verification testing
- Establishing an accessibility program office
Discussion. Through this
research, we have come to better understand the market for universally
designed mainstream consumer products and services, documented successful
universal design development processes, achieved a better understanding
of consumer needs, analyzed UD facilitators and barriers, and identified
and addressed current issues in universal design. This research
program has found that—
- A market for universally designed products and
services exists.
- UD principles can be easily incorporated into
current design practices.
- Products designed to be accessible sometimes do
not meet the needs of users.
- Legislation is currently both a facilitator and
a barrier to UD.
- Many barriers to UD remain and must be addressed
before significant progress can be made.
Several important recommendations can be made from
this research for designers, developers, federal agencies, and companies
striving to incorporate universal design into their development
process:
Strategies for Government and Industry to Promote Universal
Design
Recommendation #1. Use
standards (government or industry) to prohibit nonessential features
that pose accessibility problems unless an alternative interface
that solves the problem is provided.
Recommendation #2. Use
standards (government or industry) to eliminate interoperability
problems that create accessibility problems.
Recommendation #3. Use
market forces to regulate features that pose intermediate levels
of accessibility problems. Require labeling and other information
to be provided, and allow recourse through tort (warranty) as
well as through general demand, as reflected in consumer purchases.
Recommendation #4. Develop
training materials and educational articles documenting the market
potential for UD products and services.
Strengthening the Impact of Section
508
Section 508 was developed to govern the purchase of accessible electronic
and information technology purchased by the Federal government.
Despite having been in place for nearly three years, section 508
has yet to reach its potential. One of the greatest shortfalls of
Section 508 is the lack of understanding of and attention to the
functional performance requirements.
Recommendation #5.
Institute procedures designed to ensure that due diligence is
given to section 508 procurement requirements. Perform an internal
analysis of the impact of section 508 on the procurement of actual
products. Publish the results of the analysis as a way of convincing
industry that the Federal Government is committed to section 508.
Recommendation #6.
Consider requesting supporting evidence for claims made on voluntary
product accessibility templates (VPATs) from all vendors responding
to bid proposals.
Recommendation #7.
Develop a quick accessibility checklist for specific product lines
likely to be procured by the Federal Government. The quick accessibility
checklist would assist procurement officials in market research
by providing them with a list of items that they can inspect themselves
when procuring products. The checklist would be tailored to specific
product lines and would not require detailed expertise to evaluate.
Recommendation #8.
Develop guidance for reporting conformance with functional performance
criteria guidelines.
Recommendation #9.
Support the coordination of state and local government adoption
of section 508 technical requirements. Provide state and local
governments with documents and training programs designed to ensure
unification of technical requirements.
Recommendation #10.
Study and document the nontechnical aspects of accessibility,
including social, psychological, and organizational accessibility.
Promote UD solutions that consider all aspects of accessibility.
Promoting the Inclusion of Universal Design
in Industry Practices
Companies are not aware of the design process
modifications needed to incorporate universal design principles.
The Federal Government should support the refinement of specific
design process interventions that can easily be incorporated.
Recommendation #11.
Develop, test, and disseminate methodologies for integrating UD
into existing design practices.
Recommendation #12.
Support the development of university-level training materials
that could be incorporated into the curriculums of existing design-oriented
degree programs. The training materials should include awareness-expanding
videos and other teaching resources that illustrate the potential
impact of key design process interventions on the lives of people
with disabilities and other beneficiaries of UD.
Recommendation #13.
Develop, test, and disseminate design reference users to illustrate
the range of functional capabilities and limitations typical among
people with disabilities. Design reference users (popular in specifying
the target population in Department of Defense acquisitions) is
a set of descriptions of prototypical users who, taken together,
express the range of functional capabilities and limitations of
the population that must be accommodated by the design project.
The use of design reference users would greatly simplify the need
for designers to research and integrate information pertaining
to the functional limitations and capabilities of people with
disabilities.
Recommendation #14.
Develop a standard methodology for testing accessibility and comparing
the accessibility of similar products.
Recommendation #15.
Coordinate with industry to promote the integration of accessibility
concepts, principles, and guidelines into the development tools
used by designers to develop products.
Creating a New Marketplace
Consumers with disabilities find many E&IT products to be inaccessible.
A sizeable un-tapped market for universal design products and services
exists. However, few companies appreciate the size of the market
or know how to tap its potential.
Recommendation #16.
Develop an information clearinghouse where users can obtain information
about accessibility issues and the features designed to address
the issues for specific product lines. Educate consumers on how
to shop for UD products and services. List vendor resources where
consumers can obtain more information about UD products.
Recommendation #17.
Develop marketing strategies and approaches that will facilitate
a connection with people with disabilities.
Recommendation #18.
Train people with disabilities to become subject-matter experts
for the purpose of participating in design focus groups and accessibility
evaluations.
Recommendation #19. Create
job-related outcomes for bulk purchasers for the successful procurement
of products and services with UD features.
Conclusions
People with disabilities want to use the same products that everyone
else uses. They do not want to be limited to specialized products
that are more costly. Implementation of UD is the best way to satisfy
this desire of people with disabilities, while also providing more
cost-effective products for all users. While it is impossible to
satisfy the needs of all users, products and services that come
closer to accommodating a variety of physical and cognitive differences
will benefit both users and companies.
Introduction
The explosive development of information technology
is rapidly changing the way we work, shop, communicate, and play.
In the 19th and early 20th centuries, our grandparents saw America
change from an agrarian society to an industrial one. We are now
in the middle of a second transformation, from an industrial society
to an information society, sparked by the development of information
science, microprocessors, and wireless technology. Information technology
and telecommunications are now relied upon for routine daily activities
that contribute to overall quality of life, such as making doctor’s
appointments, obtaining directions, and purchasing goods and services.
Companies are increasingly expanding their presence into emerging
markets. As the National Council on Disability (NCD) points out,
“Companies are serving populations they have never before
served” (NCD, 2002).
Every consumer is different. No two people have the exact same set
of learning styles, abilities, experiences, and educational background.
What used to be one market of billions of consumers is evolving
into billions of markets of one consumer, as computer technology
makes it economical for products to be customized to meet the user’s
needs. This marketing shift is a dramatic change from a few short
years ago. To remain competitive, companies must learn to develop
products that accommodate the wants, needs, and preferences of as
many individual consumers as is technically possible and economically
feasible.
Designing with access in mind can significantly increase
the size of targeted markets for electronic and information technology
(E&IT). Good business practice dictates that designers and engineers
avoid unintentionally excluding large populations of consumers from
accessing and using the E&IT they develop and manufacture. People
with disabilities are at a high risk of exclusion. Other consumer
groups are also at risk. They are—
- Individuals 65+ years old
- Consumers living in low-bandwidth information infrastructures
- People who never learned to read
- Users of English as a Second Language (ESL)
- Tourists and people living in multilingual societies
- Consumers living in high-density populations
Universal design (UD) has been proposed as a
means to meet needs of consumers, including those with special needs,
while maximizing a company’s potential to develop a marketable,
easy-to-use product. The purpose of this research program is to
understand the market for universally designed mainstream consumer
products and services, document successful UD development processes,
understand consumer needs, understand UD facilitators and barriers,
and identify and address current issues in universal design.
The future of design for inclusion is in jeopardy.
We are in the window of opportunity for implementing section 508.
If progress is not made quickly in improving the skills of government
and industry employees on accessibility issues, the window will
soon shut with little having been accomplished. If industry does
not see that federal agencies are serious about implementing section
508 in a consistent manner, companies will shift the monetary and
human resources needed for improving accessibility to product development
opportunities that offer a higher return on investment. Progress
must be made now, and the purpose of this report is to present the
information and recommendations that will guide this progress.
Through this research, NCD aims to educate designers
and manufacturers about how electronic and information technology
intersects with the needs of individuals with disabilities. In addition
to providing knowledge about disabilities, we see the importance
here and now of educating individuals on universal design. Currently,
many people business people have never heard of UD, and many of
those who have do not understand that it is more than just a design
for disability. This research aims to provide businesses with the
knowledge of UD methods they need to clearly see how their complex
products can be made accessible in a cost-effective way.
This study examined the philosophical, economic, and
technological rationales that currently drive the development of
UD and identified specific barriers to increased implementation,
while also addressing commonly held assumptions about universal
design. Six product lines were analyzed from the telecommunications,
software, consumer electronics, and digital services industries
for both accessibility and usability. We estimated how useful these
products are to individuals with disabilities and whether the products
conform to section 508 requirements and section 255 guidelines.
In doing so, we were able to present recommendations for improving
such products. This report aims to aid industry in adopting UD practices
by using the information obtained on current industry practices,
barriers, and facilitation factors to investigate methods for motivating
companies to incorporate UD methods in product development.
At a time when the incorporation of universal design
is crucial, NCD hopes that the information provided in this report
will motivate and drive the design for more universally designed
E&IT.
Definition of Universal Design
Universal design, or design for inclusion, is a process to ensure
that E&IT is inclusive, accessible, and usable by everyone,
including people with disabilities. Accessible design is a step
forward when developing E&IT products, but it tends to lead
to technologies that will be used separately, or in addition to,
the main E&IT product, which diminishes the effectiveness of
designing for all. Incorporating UD processes when developing E&IT
is one solution to accommodating people with disabilities that also
improves the usability of the products for the rest of the population.
The above definition encapsulates what it means to
design with universal access in mind. UD has been referred to as
many things and has been defined in many ways and with many perspectives.
Despite the differences in interpretation and definition, one thread
that ties the perspectives together is that all people, young and
old, with and without disabilities, can have access to the same
opportunities. Some alternative terms that have been used to refer
to UD are inclusive design, design for inclusion, lifespan design,
transgenerational design, barrier-free design, design-for-all, and
accessibility. The first four terms have their roots in accomplishing
social inclusion, the next two have their roots in design of the
built environment, and the last is linked to legislated requirements
for accommodation (Ostroff, 2001).
The term universal design was originally
coined in the 1970s by Ronald Mace.
Ron Mace was a nationally and internationally recognized
architect, product designer, and educator whose design philosophy
challenged convention and provided a design foundation for a more
usable world. He coined the term “universal design”
to describe the concept of designing all products and the built
environment to be aesthetic and usable to the greatest extent
possible by everyone, regardless of their age, ability, or status
in life (Center for Universal Design, n.d.).
Other characteristics of UD are summarized, in part,
from interviews with visionaries regarding accessibility and UD
(Fain et al., 2001). The visionaries talked about including a wide
range of individuals in all stages of the design process; integrating
accessible features so they don’t stand out (resulting in
social integration); and creating things so that they can be made
available “out of the box,” enabling as many people
as possible to use them. It is considered a design methodology and
an extension of the user-centered design process. Additional variations
include the following:
…[T]he practice of designing products or environments that
can be effectively and efficiently used by people with a wide
range of abilities operating in a wide range of situations (Vanderheiden,
1997, p. 2014).
…[B]uilding products that are robust and accommodating.
Universal designs take account of differences in sight, hearing,
mobility, speech, and cognition. Universal design helps not only
people with disabilities, but also any of us when we’re
tired, busy, or juggling many tasks (Francik, 1996).
…[T]he design of products and environments
to be usable by all people, to the greatest extent possible, without
the need for adaptation or specialized design. The intent of universal
design is to simplify life for everyone by making products, communications,
and the built environment more usable by as many people as possible
at little or no extra cost. Universal design benefits people of
all ages and abilities (Center for Universal Design, n.d.).
A much greater awareness of disabilities has evolved
in the last century, in part as a result of a significant increase
in the human lifespan. The general population has had greater exposure
to human limitation as the people around them have aged and developed
limitations, while at the same time living outside institutions
and becoming more independent. This exposure has increased awareness
of limitations that can impede the average individual and has led
to design changes in products to help overcome these limitations.
Initially, these design changes were implemented as special features
that added to the cost and stood out as features for people with
special needs. Over time, designers began to recognize that many
design changes could be made on a larger scale, reducing the cost
and benefiting a larger portion of the population (Center for Universal
Design, n.d.). Research led to the formulation of design principles
that describe the objectives of UD.
In 1997, North Carolina State University’s Center
for Universal Design documented and published seven Principles of
Universal Design (1997):
- Equitable Use: The design is useful and marketable
to people with diverse abilities.
- Flexibility in Use: The design accommodates a
wide range of individual preferences and abilities.
- Simple and Intuitive Use: Use of the design is
easy to understand, regardless of the user’s experience,
knowledge, language skills, or current concentration level.
- Perceptible Information: The design communicates
necessary information effectively to the user, regardless of ambient
conditions or the user’s sensory abilities.
- Tolerance for Error: The design minimizes hazards
and the adverse consequences of accidental or unintended actions.
- Low Physical Effort: The design can be used efficiently
and comfortably and with a minimum of fatigue.
- Size and Space for Approach and Use: Appropriate
size and space are provided for approach, reach, manipulation,
and use, regardless of the user’s body size, posture, or
mobility.
These principles serve as guidelines for the designers
of accessible products. If these principles are incorporated into
and considered during the design process, the result will be products
that are accessible to a wide range of users. In addition to principles
such as the ones mentioned above, standards have been and will continue
to be developed that serve as guidelines for designers and manufacturers.
These standards mandate that products, services, or places are accessible
to particular groups of people and provide requirements that must
be met. Universal designers must incorporate these principles and
standards and use them for guidance when developing products and
services to be accessible to the wide population.
The definition of UD must address the population
it is intended to benefit. Consideration must be given to various
disability groups—blind, low vision, deaf, limited hearing,
limited manual dexterity, limited cognition, and lack of reading
ability—keeping in mind that these limitations may result
from situational constraints rather than a formally defined disability,
as defined below:
OPERABLE WITHOUT VISION = is required by people
who are blind – and – people
whose eyes are busy (e.g., driving your
car or phone browsing) or who are in darkness.
OPERABLE WITH LOW VISION = is required by people
with visual impairment – and –
people using a small display or in a
smoky environment.
OPERABLE WITH NO HEARING = is required by people
who are deaf – and – by
people in very loud environments or
whose ears are busy or are in forced
silence (library or meeting).
OPERABLE WITH LIMITED HEARING = is required by
people who are hard of hearing –
and – people in noisy environments.
OPERABLE WITH LIMITED MANUAL DEXTERITY = is required
by people with a physical disability
– and – people in a space suit
or chemical suit or who are in a bouncing
vehicle.
OPERABLE WITH LIMITED COGNITION = is required by
people with a cognitive disability –
and – people who are distracted
or panicked or under the influence
of alcohol.
OPERABLE WITHOUT READING = is required by people
with a cognitive disability –
and – people who just haven’t learned
to read this language, people who are visitors,
people who left reading glasses behind (Vanderheiden, n.d.).
While there is no strong basis for characterizing
UD and discriminating UD products from non-UD products, a few sets
of evaluation criteria have been identified. The Center for Universal
Design has developed two versions of Universal Design Performance
Measures. The consumer version helps guide personal purchasing decisions.
The designer’s version “…provides a good relative
assessment of universal usability, but the measures are not an absolute
tool for achieving universal design” (Story, 2001). These
measures consider questions for phase of use of commercial products:
packaging, instructions, product installation, use, storage, maintenance,
repair, and disposal. In addition, Vanderheiden (2001) has identified
three levels for evaluating products. Level 1 is assigned for features
that, if not implemented, will cause a product to be unusable for
certain groups or situations. Level 2 is assigned for features that,
if not implemented, will make the product very difficult to use
for some groups and situations. Level 3 is assigned for features
that, if implemented, will make the product easier to use but do
not make it usable or unusable.
Now that UD definitions, principles, and evaluation
techniques have been discussed, the question becomes, “What
is the reality of UD?” In other words, “Is UD achievable?”
The answer to this question depends, in part, on how UD is defined.
On the one hand, there is Ronald Mace’s definition, which
indicates that people from all walks of life should have the same
opportunities. At some level, this is achievable. Consider the curb
cut. Curb cuts came about because of the Americans with Disabilities
Act (ADA), but it turns out that they are beneficial to all of society:
people pushing baby strollers or using roller blades, for example.
The curb cut is most definitely considered to have achieved UD.
On the other hand, one viewpoint of UD suggests the ideal that designs
should be usable by individuals under every circumstance. While
it’s true that many things are usable by a range of individuals,
not all of those things are designed in an ideal manner for those
same individuals. It is not possible to account for every variation
in human ability, need, and preference. As stated by Story, Mueller,
and Mace (1998),
It is possible to design a product or an environment
to suit a broad range of users, including children, older adults,
people with disabilities, people of atypical size or shape, people
who are ill or injured, and people inconvenienced by circumstance.
[Yet,] it is unlikely that any product or environment could ever
be used by everyone under all conditions. Because of this, it may
be more appropriate to consider universal design a process, rather
than an achievement.
Role of Assistive Technology in Universal Design
According to the U.S. Assistive Technology Act of
1998,
The term assistive technology means technology
designed to be utilized in an assistive technology device or assistive
technology service. The term assistive technology device means
any item, piece of equipment, or system, whether acquired commercially,
modified, or customized, that is used to increase, maintain, or
improve functional capabilities of individuals with disabilities
(Assistive Technology Act, 1998).
People with disabilities are commonly aided by the
use of assistive technology (AT). Users with visual impairments
may benefit from the use of the following ATs:
- Speech input and synthesized
speech output
- Screen readers
- Screen magnifiers
- Screen projectors
- Signage and text printed in
Braille and large letters with high contrast, standardized keyboards
and keyboard layout with landmarks
- Visual, acoustic, and tactile
feedback and alert signals
- Smart cards that provide a
preferred user interface and output
- Audio recorded information
Users with hearing impairments may benefit from
the use of the following ATs:
- Text telephones
- Nonverbal information
- Visual, acoustic, and tactile
feedback and alert signals
- Adjustable signal level and
tone on audio devices
- Adjustable temporal and spatial
resolution in visual communications
- Volume control
- Additional earpieces
- Provisions for inductive coupling
to hearing aids
Users with mobility impairments may benefit from
the use of the following ATs:
- Tilting keyboards and keypads
- Hands-free data entry and response
selection
- Speech input
- Intelligent word prediction
software
- Alternative pointing devices,
such as mouth sticks
- Keyboard controllers
- Body position switches
- Book holders and page turners
- Arm supports
- Touchscreens
- Remote switches
Users with cognitive disabilities may benefit
from the use of the following ATs:
- Standardized icons
- Tactile cues
- Landmarks, both visual and
tactile
- Speech-synthesized output
- Speech input
- Visual examples using drawings
and icons for help systems
Some of these assistive technologies can be designed
into the product lines themselves; others must be used externally
to the device. There is an ongoing debate regarding the role
of AT in universal design. At the core of the issue is whether
the capabilities of AT should be built into mainstream products
(those designed for the general public) or whether they should
be separate products that can be used with mainstream products
by those who need them. There are three schools of thought regarding
the use of AT:
1. AT should be the primary solution to providing
people with disabilities access to E&IT.
2. E&IT manufacturers should enhance the
accessibility of their products to extents that are technically
possible and economically feasible. Beyond this, AT should be
used.
3. E&IT manufacturers should make all their
products accessible by everyone, under all circumstances, in
any situation.
While it is clear that a single design cannot
accommodate all individuals in all contexts (Stephanidis, 2001;
Vanderheiden, 1990), an inclusive design can accommodate a larger
number of people than one designed for the “average”
user. In addition, ATs themselves cannot readily accommodate
the needs of all users, and it is burdensome and costly for
AT to keep up with changing mainstream technologies. On the
other hand, AT developers have detailed knowledge about the
needs of users with various functional limitations, and they
can develop better products if they can focus on the needs of
their target users.
Some believe that the solution is for AT developers
to develop better products rather than mainstream developers
trying to design products that are useful to everyone. However,
with this approach, people who need assistive technology are
required to purchase AT products in addition to the mainstream
products. They must also carry their AT device around so that
they always have the capability to use a product. The best solution
is, perhaps, a middle ground, keeping in mind that part of UD
is ensuring compatibility with some types of AT (e.g., touchsticks),
but UD doesn’t have to require the use of AT.
…[U]niversal design in [information
technology and telecommunications] IT&T products should
not be conceived as an effort to advance a single solution
for everybody, but as a user-centered approach to providing
products that can automatically address the possible range
of human abilities, skills, requirements, and preferences
(Stephanidis, 2001).
Assistive technology development, whether or
not it is integrated in mainstream products, is critical. The
Assistive Technology Act of 1998 (P.L. 105-394) provides federal
support for research and promotion of AT; Title II specifically
relates to coordinating research for assistive technology and
universal design (U.S. Department of Commerce, 2003).
There are a number of arguments against the design
of AT as separate products:
- AT requires added cost
on top of the mainstream products and is affected, in part,
by insurance reimbursement policies (U.S. Department of Commerce,
2003).
- AT is sometimes prohibitively
expensive, even without the cost of the mainstream products.
- It is not always possible
for a person to carry around all necessary AT products.
- AT is focused on a limited
audience.
- Different AT is needed
to accommodate different functional limitations.
- The economics of ATs are
such that the limited market and limited purchasing power
of the market will likely limit the abilities of AT companies
to keep up with the pace of mainstream technologies.
- Often when an innovation
in mainstream technology takes place, an update in the AT
is required; this results in extra cost for the person requiring
AT or, at the very least, introduces risk. For example, installation
of a new software product may interfere with the operation
of existing AT. Technology is changing so rapidly that once
an access problem is solved, it is common for a new access
problem to surface (Stephanidis, 2001; Emiliani, 2001).
- While ATs can be portable,
security concerns may prohibit their use; for example, a library
may prohibit the installation of a screen magnifier on a public
computer.
- AT companies do not have
the resources needed to work closely with companies to ensure
compatibilities with their products or to do product testing
(U.S. Department of Commerce, 2003).
- AT companies often do not
share the features they have planned for their products with
other companies until the AT is released. While industry would
like to have the data sooner, AT companies are reluctant to
promise technologies that they might not be able to deliver.
Arguments favoring the design of ATs as separate
products include the following:
- AT allows companies to
focus on the development of their specialized products, thus
resulting in a better job of handling the accessibility issues
to meet the needs of people with disabilities.
- It is possible for AT to
become so mainstream that it is no longer considered AT. Eyeglasses,
for example, are no longer thought of as assistive technology,
and closed-captioning and voice recognition software are becoming
more commonplace.
- AT is better equipped to
handle specialized or rare needs of people with disabilities,
and there will likely always be a need for some forms of assistive
technology. In addition, AT can be tailored to address unique
needs (U.S. Department of Commerce, 2003).
Arguments for integrated AT and UD include the
following (Vanderheiden, 1990; Winograd, 1997):
- Many product adaptations
necessary to accommodate some functional limitations can be
implemented in mainstream products at little or no extra cost.
- Many product adaptations
necessary to accommodate some functional limitations can also
facilitate use by the general population (e.g., the curb cut).
Some benefits of implementing accessibility features that
have a more global benefit include lower fatigue, increased
speed, and lower error rates.
- AT cannot accommodate the
needs of the many individual subgroups that have special needs
(e.g., mild versus severe hearing loss).
- Special features can be
integrated into mainstream products so they are transparent
to users who don’t need them (e.g., “sticky keys”).
Regardless of how people with disabilities use
the technology, it will have a large impact on their independence
and ability to fully participate in society, resulting in an
added cost benefit to society as a whole (Vanderheiden, 1990).
The population of people who may require some sort of accommodation
is ever-growing with the increase of the elderly population,
so much so that the term “general population” possibly
should be redefined in the minds of designers. Although the
market potential for products is great, the limited population
for any given AT creates financial constraints for small companies
that focus on AT development. Large companies typically have
the finances but not the expertise to address a wide range of
needs (AAATE, 2003). Complications stem not only from the wide
variety of functional limitations but also from the ever-increasing
need for rapid configuration of technologies to accommodate
environmental and other contextual needs. The increasingly mobile
society, for example, may mean that individuals need specialized
accommodation over a period of a day or even hours, while a
more fixed environment may require little variation in configuration.
“…[I]n the context of the emerging distributed and
communication-intensive information society, users are not only
the computer-literate, skilled, and able-bodied workers driven
by performance-oriented motives, nor do users constitute a homogeneous
mass of information-seeking actors with standard abilities,
similar interests, and common preferences with regard to information
access and use” (Stephanidis, 2001, p. 6). The AT industry
alone cannot address the variable contexts that create a need
for more customized situational technologies.
If products are not going to be designed with
AT built in, they need to be designed from the ground up to
be fully compatible with AT, and AT needs to be designed so
well that people with disabilities no longer have accessibility
issues with products. If products are designed with UD principles
in mind, they will likely be accessible to a large number of
people with disabilities without the use of AT. Regardless of
the resolution to this debate, if any, AT and mainstream developers
must work together to achieve the greatest accommodation possible
and to develop adaptors, when necessary. “The use of an
adaptor is appropriate when two systems cannot otherwise accommodate
each other; this is the case when accessibility problems are
alleviated by the choice of alternative input/output devices
or by communication via an alternative modality” (Benyon,
Crerar, and Wilkinson, 2001). Thus, there is a place in society
for both integrated AT and UD, as well as for separate AT products.
Research Process
An extensive research program was conducted to
complete each of the research activities documented in this
report. This research program was conducted by examining the
roles and perspectives of industry, Federal Government, and
consumers with respect to the six product lines that are important
to people with disabilities. The six product lines studied were
automated teller machines (ATMs), cellular phones, distance
learning software, personal digital assistants (PDAs), televisions,
and voice recognition technologies. For more information about
the research process undertaken in preparing this report and
additional information, please consult the online version of
the report at http://www.ncd.gov.
Section A: The Definition of Universal Design
Note: This is the full version of the section
abbreviated for the print version.
Universal design (UD), or design for inclusion, is
a process to ensure that electronic and information technology (E&IT)
is inclusive, accessible, and usable by everyone, including people
with disabilities. Accessible design is a step forward when developing
E&IT products, but it tends to lead to technologies that will
be used separately, or in addition to, the main E&IT product.
This diminishes the effectiveness of designing for all. Incorporating
UD processes when developing E&IT is one solution to accommodating
people with disabilities that also improves the usability of the
products for the rest of the population.
The above definition encapsulates what it means
to design with universal access in mind. UD has been referred to
as many things and has been defined in many ways. In their book
entitled The Universal Design Handbook, Wolfgang Preiser
and Elaine Ostroff (2001) describe the concept of universal design
as a term that was first used in the United States by Ronald Mace
in 1985. The concept took form in the realm of the built environment
and has since spread to many arenas, including information technology
(IT). Despite the differences in interpretation and definition,
one thread that ties the perspectives together is that all people,
young and old, with and without disabilities, can have access to
the same opportunities. An architect in the 1970s realized that
“…everyone’s functional capacity is enhanced when
environmental barriers are removed” (Fletcher, 2002). From
the removal of barriers for people with physical disabilities, the
concept of UD has expanded to include other disabilities and domains.
The proliferation of UD concepts has evolved in part
from accommodating the needs of an aging population, legislation
enacted to encourage equal accommodation for people with disabilities,
and a desire to achieve mainstreaming of all of society’s
peoples. The Industrial Revolution resulted in wider availability
of products. The Civil Rights Movement, the Americans with Disabilities
Act (ADA), the Rehabilitation Act, and other laws were enacted to
help break down barriers that were slowing societal mainstreaming.
There were various movements to integrate society in other countries
as well. As early as 1969, the Centre on Accessible Environments
came to be in the United Kingdom; and in the 1970s, Ronald Mace
coined the term “universal design.” Over time, a change
in perspective regarding human limitation has been made, “…from
treating people as part of the medical model, as dependent, passive
recipients of care and services, to a model in which everyone is
treated as an equal citizen and disability is seen merely as a social
construct” (Sandhu, 2001, p. 3.4).
Some alternate terms that have been used to refer
to universal design are inclusive design, design for inclusion,
life span design, transgenerational design, barrier-free design,
design-for-all, and accessibility. The first four terms have their
roots in accomplishing social inclusion, the next two have their
roots in design of the built environment, and the last is linked
to legislated requirements for accommodation (Ostroff, 2001).
“Ron Mace was a nationally and internationally
recognized architect, product designer, and educator whose design
philosophy challenged convention and provided a design foundation
for a more usable world. He coined the term ‘universal design’
to describe the concept of designing all products and the built
environment to be aesthetic and usable to the greatest extent possible
by everyone, regardless of their age, ability, or status in life”
(The Center for Universal Design, North Carolina State University,
1997). Other characteristics of UD are summarized, in part, from
interviews with visionaries regarding accessibility and UD (Fain
et al., 2001). The visionaries talked about including a wide range
of individuals in all stages of the design process, integrating
accessible features so they do not stand out (resulting in social
integration), and creating things so that they can be made available
“out of the box,” such that as many people as possible
can use them. It is considered a design methodology and an extension
of the user-centered design process. Additional variations include
the following:
“…[T]he practice of designing products
or environments that can be effectively and efficiently used by
people with a wide range of abilities operating in a wide range
of situations.” (Vanderheiden, 1997, p. 2014)
“…[B]uilding products that are robust
and accommodating. Universal designs take account of differences
in sight, hearing, mobility, speech, and cognition. Universal
design helps not only people with disabilities, but also any of
us when we’re tired, busy, or juggling many tasks.”
(Francik, 1996)
“…[T]he design of products and environments
to be usable by all people, to the greatest extent possible, without
the need for adaptation or specialized design. The intent of universal
design is to simplify life for everyone by making products, communications,
and the built environment more usable by as many people as possible
at little or no extra cost. Universal design benefits people of
all ages and abilities.” (Center for Universal Design, n.d.)
A much greater awareness of disabilities has evolved
in the last century, in part as a result of a significant increase
in the human lifespan. The general population has had greater exposure
to human limitation as the people around them have aged and developed
limitations, while at the same time living outside of institutions
and becoming more independent. This exposure has helped to increase
awareness of limitations that can impede the average individual
and subsequently to lead to design changes in products to help overcome
these limitations. Initially, these design changes were implemented
as special features that added to cost and stood out as features
for people with special needs. Over time, designers began to recognize
that many design changes could be made on a larger scale, reducing
cost and benefiting a larger portion of the population (Center for
Universal Design, n.d.). Research led to the formulation of design
principles that describe the objectives of UD.
In 1997 North Carolina State University’s
Center for Universal Design documented and published seven Principles
of Universal Design (NC State, 1997). The principles are—
- Equitable Use: The design is
useful and marketable to people with diverse abilities.
- Equitable Use: The design is
useful and marketable to people with diverse abilities.
- Flexibility in Use: The design
accommodates a wide range of individual preferences and abilities.
- Simple and Intuitive Use: Use
of the design is easy to understand, regardless of the user’s
experience, knowledge, language skills, or current concentration
level.
- Perceptible Information: The
design communicates necessary information effectively to the user,
regardless of ambient conditions or the user’s sensory abilities.
- Tolerance for Error: The design
minimizes hazards and the adverse consequences of accidental or
unintended actions.
- Low Physical Effort: The design
can be used efficiently and comfortably and with a minimum of
fatigue.
- Size and Space for Approach
and Use: Appropriate size and space is provided for approach,
reach, manipulation, and use, regardless of the user’s body
size, posture, or mobility.
These principles serve as guidelines for the designers
of accessible products. If these principles are incorporated into
and considered during the design process, the result will be products
that are accessible to a wide range of users. In addition to design
principles, such as the ones mentioned above, standards have been
and will continue to be developed that serve as guidelines for designers
and manufacturers. These standards mandate that products, services,
or places be accessible to particular groups of people and provide
requirements that must be met. Universal design must incorporate
these principles and standards and use them as guidance when developing
products and services that are accessible to the wide population.
The definition of UD must address the population
it is intended to benefit. Consideration must be given to various
disability groups—blind, low vision, deaf, limited hearing,
limited manual dexterity, limited cognition, and lack of reading
ability—keeping in mind that these limitations may result
from situational constraints rather than a formally defined disability.
Vanderheiden (n.d.) provided the following descriptions of accessibility:
OPERABLE WITHOUT VISION = is required by people
who are blind – and – people
whose eyes are busy (e.g., driving your
car or phone browsing) or who are in darkness.
OPERABLE WITH LOW VISION = is required by people
with visual impairment – and –
people using a small display or in a
smoky environment.
OPERABLE WITH NO HEARING = is required by people
who are deaf – and – by
people in very loud environments or
whose ears are busy or are in forced
silence (library or meeting).
OPERABLE WITH LIMITED HEARING = is required by
people who are hard of hearing –
and – people in noisy environments.
OPERABLE WITH LIMITED MANUAL DEXTERITY = is required
by people with a physical disability
– and – people in a space suit
or chemical suit or who are in a bouncing
vehicle.
OPERABLE WITH LIMITED COGNITION = is required by
people with a cognitive disability –
and – people who are distracted
or panicked or under the influence
of alcohol.
OPERABLE WITHOUT READING = is required by people
with a cognitive disability –
and – people who just haven’t learned
to read this language, people who are visitors,
people who left reading glasses behind
To expand on the characterization of human limitation,
it has been noted that “while some individuals have chronic
conditions, anyone may be temporarily disabled” (Story, Mueller,
and Mace, 1998). For example, a broken leg, a sprained wrist, the
flu, pupils dilated for an eye exam, or the lasting effects of a
loud concert are temporarily disabling conditions. Also, circumstances
such as poor lighting, high noise levels, adverse weather conditions,
carrying packages, wearing bad shoes, or visiting a country where
natives speak a different language affect people’s physical,
sensory, and cognitive abilities (Story, Mueller, and Mace, 1998).
While there is no strong basis for characterizing
UD and discriminating UD products from non-UD products, there are
a few sets of evaluation criteria that have been identified. The
Center for Universal Design has developed two versions of Universal
Design Performance Measures. The consumer’s version helps
guide personal purchasing decisions. The designer’s version
“…provides a good relative assessment of universal usability,
but the measures are not an absolute tool for achieving universal
design” (Story, 2001). These measures consider questions for
phase of use of commercial products: packaging, instructions, product
installation, use, storage, maintenance, repair, and disposal. In
addition, Vanderheiden (2001) has identified three levels for evaluating
products. Level 1 is assigned for features that, if not implemented,
will cause a product to be unusable for certain groups of users
or situations. Level 2 is assigned for features that, if not implemented,
will make the product very difficult to use for some groups of users
and situations. Level 3 is assigned for features that, if implemented,
will make the product easier to use, but do not make a product usable
or unusable.
Now that UD definitions, principles, and evaluation
techniques have been discussed, the question becomes, “What
is the reality of UD?” In other words, “Is UD achievable?”
The answer to this question depends, in part, on how UD is defined.
On the one hand, there is Ronald Mace’s definition, which
indicates that people from all walks of life should have the same
opportunities. At some level, this is achievable. Consider the curb
cut. Curb cuts came about because of ADA legislation, but it turns
out that they are beneficial to all of society: people pushing baby
strollers or using roller blades, for example. The curb cut may
be considered to have achieved UD. On the other hand, there is the
viewpoint of UD that suggests the ideal that designs should be usable
by individuals under every circumstance. While it is true that many
things are usable by a range of individuals, not all of those things
are designed in an ideal manner for those same individuals. It is
not possible to account for every variation in human ability, need,
and preference. As stated by Story, Mueller, and Mace (1998), “It
is possible to design a product or an environment to suit a broad
range of users, including children, older adults, people with disabilities,
people of atypical size or shape, people who are ill or injured,
and people inconvenienced by circumstance.” Yet, “it
is unlikely that any product or environment could ever be used by
everyone under all conditions. Because of this, it may be more appropriate
to consider universal design a process, rather than an achievement.”
Section B: Description of the Research Process
The research process for this report can be divided
into five steps: identification of product lines, market analysis,
user study, product analysis, and industry study. The project made
use of existing relationships with industry and consumer groups,
and in some cases existing data from these relationships, to directly
benefit the current research. The following is a summary of the
research process undertaken to conduct each proposed task. The summary
is divided according to the section of the report under which each
of the research tasks falls.
Identification of Product
Lines
The project team identified candidate product lines
based on our experience with the use of accessible E&IT products
in the disability community, the results of a user survey of use
and importance of consumer products conducted by the Wireless Rehabilitation
Engineering Research Center (RERC), and the product classification
(developed by the Information Technology Technical Assistance Training
Center, ITTATC) taxonomy of hardware and devices frequently used
by members of the disability community.
Once candidate product lines were identified, the
team developed criteria on which to rate the product lines to determine
which would be selected for evaluation. These ratings were first
considered separately and then collectively for each given product
line, and the ratings were then compared across the different product
lines to determine the products that would most benefit from this
type of research (i.e., the largest benefit to NCD and the disability
community). Product lines were then rated individually by each project
team member and discussed. Finally, the six highest-scoring product
lines were selected for inclusion in the study. The final list of
product lines was submitted to NCD for approval along with a summary
of the analysis used to nominate the candidate product lines.
Market Analysis
The purpose of conducting the market analysis was
to identify and analyze the business elements that create demand
for developing, manufacturing, and marketing accessible E&IT.
This task had four parts: the definition of the market environment,
a customer analysis, an analysis of market trends, and an analysis
of the international market.
Definition of the
Market Environment
The purpose of this task was to identify both the
market and the market trends that affect development of the E&IT
products previously identified. We analyzed the characteristics
of the market that create the highest demand-pull for accessibly
designed E&IT, including market size, market growth rate, market
intensity, market consumption, capacity, commercial infrastructure,
economic freedom, market receptivity, country risk, and the “accessible
design legal climate.” We then identified the characteristics
of each market, including population densities; bandwidth; use of
language; and current accessible-design-focused laws, standards,
and guidelines.
Particular emphasis was placed on identifying the
primary forces driving demand for more accessibly designed E&IT,
including market forces, aspects of the local environment and the
human condition, the legal framework, and standards and guidelines
that suggest and/or mandate accessible design practices.
Customer Analysis
The purpose of this analysis was to match customer
demand with E&IT products as well as to segment the potential
customer communities by physically, environmentally, educationally,
and technologically induced accessibility limitations. We began
by identifying characteristics of different global consumer communities
by each externally induced accessibility limitation. This included
addressing commonly held assumptions about the market and the customers.
This process was used to analyze all of the major consumer groups
identified.
For each customer group, we identified demographics
and then isolated and analyzed the demographic sectors that create
demand-pull for accessibly designed E&IT. Then we gathered and
analyzed disability statistics, where available.
Analysis of Market Trends
In the analysis of market trends we took an in-depth
look into how accessible E&IT design practices support marketing
“one-to-one,” rather than the mass marketing philosophy
of the 1980s. We then analyzed technology trends for each of the
product lines under study, and we grouped mainstream business requirements
that share common characteristics with the access needs of people
with disabilities. We also looked at the market forces that drive
the demand for accessibly designed cellular phones, personal digital
assistants (PDAs), televisions, voice recognition software, distance
learning education, and automated teller machines (ATMs).
International Market
This section of our research focused on examining
the markets in countries other than the United States. The business
justification for including these lies in the fact that 95 percent
of the world’s economic activity takes place outside of the
United States, leaving the majority of the world’s economy
untouched by most U.S.-based businesses. Information from this section
of the market analysis came from the 2003–2004 country commercial
guides (CCGs) that were prepared by the U.S. Embassy staff. We specifically
focused on the section of each country’s guide that identifies
the leading sectors for U.S. exports and investments. We selected
the countries for this study not based on market potential alone,
but also on the level of U.S. corporate investment in each country,
investments that support the establishment of long-term business
relationships. We selected the top five developing countries with
the highest populations, established by GlobalEDGE (2003) as having
the highest overall market potential: China, India, Russia, Mexico,
and Turkey. A thorough discussion of each emerging market is included
in Section F, “Analysis of the International Market.”
User Study
The purpose of the user study was to document user
acceptance and use of universally designed products. We conducted
five focus groups and one individual interview with participants
with disabilities recruited from the Georgia Tech subject pool and
the surrounding disability community. Participants discussed specific
experiences with each of the six product lines, including both their
positive and their negative experiences. The facilitator described
the purpose of the study and introduced each product line to the
participants. Participants then generated lists of features that
affect the accessibility of the devices in each product line. Then
the facilitator led a discussion of each feature and asked participants
to rate the impact of each feature on the overall accessibility
of the product for their particular range of functional capabilities.
We then analyzed the data from the focus groups, resulting
in a list of features that maximize the accessibility of a specific
product line for the range of functional limitations represented
by this study. We also noted accessibility features that were judged
to be critical to the operation of the device by users with specific
impairments.
We spent a portion of our time with the focus groups
conducting performance testing to gain objective measurements. Users
were asked to participate in hands-on test session using examples
of products with accessible features from each of the product lines
under study. We gave the users brief evaluation scenarios in which
they were asked to perform a series of typical tasks associated
with each device. The ability of each participant to perform the
task was documented. The degree to which an accessibility feature
actually facilitated task performance was also documented.
Product Analysis
The product line assessment provides an identification
of accessibility issues within each product line and an assessment
of accessibility features designed to address specific issues. To
assess the accessibility issues, we calculated an “impact
score” for each issue and target population. The impact score
is an estimation of the effect of a particular accessibility issue
on a particular target population. The score was calculated at the
task level based on two separate dimensions. The first dimension,
task priority, was defined as a measure of task importance. High-priority
tasks are those that are essential to the device, while low-priority
tasks are defined as those that are not essential or that would
not be expected to be performed by the end-user. The second dimension,
accessibility, was defined as an estimation of the ability of a
user with a given set of functional capabilities and limitations
to complete a given task satisfactorily.
The task-based accessibility analysis consisted of
identifying the core functionality (tasks) for the product line;
identifying the priority level for each task; and then for each
task for each disability type, assigning a task accessibility score.
Tasks were prioritized based on an estimate of the essential or
core features of the device, versus advanced features, product enhancements,
and features related to device set-up and maintenance. The assignment
of these priorities is discussed more thoroughly in “Product
Line Assessment Methodology” in Section G of the report. Each
task was also assigned an estimate of accessibility based on empirical
observations of similar tasks in the Accessibility Evaluation Facility
and expert judgment. Three levels of accessibility were considered:
little or no difficulty; some difficulty; and great difficulty.
Following the calculation of these scores, an accessibility
impact score was then calculated. This score is an indicator
of the importance of a given accessibility issue for the overall
accessibility of the device. The accessibility impact score reflects
the joint influence of task priority and accessibility level for
tasks. Task priority is the strongest component of the impact score.
Next, the overall accessibility grade was determined. The
overall accessibility grade for a product line is an index of the
cumulative impact of all accessibility issues. The accessibility
grade is a letter grade on the familiar scale of A, B, C, D, and
F.
The product analysis report describes the results
of the product line assessments for each of the six product lines:
ATMs, cellular phones, distance learning software, PDAs, televisions,
and voice recognition software. The report is organized according
to specific product lines. Each product line section was organized
as follows: background, task-based accessibility analysis, accessibility
features, compliance with government regulations, and conclusions.
Industry Study
The purpose of the industry study was to document
factors that influence the design and development of products within
industries representing each of the product lines under study. Before
beginning the industry study, we started by identifying candidate
facilitators and candidate barriers by reviewing ITTATC case studies
data, ITTATC industry survey data, and accessibility literature.
The case studies data provided a basis for identifying facilitators
and barriers, as the companies from which they were collected cover
a wide range of E&IT. The industry survey data, on the other
hand, provided us with a broader view of general practices within
a larger number of companies spanning an even larger domain of E&IT.
The accessibility literature was used in this part of the research
because aside from providing excellent insight into the history
and expectations of guidelines as specified in Section 508 and other
government regulations, it provided more of the consumer perception
of accessibility in product design—a different viewpoint from
that provided by product designers and manufacturers themselves.
Eleven business concerns that have an influence on
UD practices within an organization were identified and are discussed
in detail in the “Industry Study” section of the report.
We also examined the ways in which businesses experience a direct
positive impact or a direct negative impact from legislation. Included
also is a discussion of the comments companies made on the barriers
to accessible design that we identified at the beginning of this
portion of the study, including a discussion of the barriers specific
to each product line industry.
Section C: Selection of the Product Lines for the Study
Users with functional limitations strive to use technology
just the way users with less severe functional limitations do. In
general, all users employ technology in order to achieve the following
important goals:
- Gain access to products that
enable communication and enhance safety and security
- Gain access to products that
enable communication and enhance safety and security
- Gain access to personal finances
- Gain access to entertainment,
information, and services
- Gain access to products that
enhance or facilitate productivity at work
- Gain access to products that simplify or assist
the quality of life at home
This program of research is based on the detailed
study of six product lines. Selection of product lines involved
the identification of candidate product lines, the definition of
selection criteria, and the formal assessment of the viability of
each of the candidate product lines. The goal of the assessment
methodology was to identify a diverse range of products that would
serve as a useful framework for the study of universal design. A
formal assessment methodology was used in order to increase the
likelihood of generating meaningful research data.
The list of candidate product lines was assembled
based on the results of a user survey conducted by the Wireless
RERC on use and importance of consumer products, and the product
classification taxonomy developed by the Technical Assistance Working
Group of ITTATC for hardware and devices frequently used by members
of the disability community. In order to ensure that the final selection
of product lines represented a sufficiently broad range of equipment
types, each candidate product line was assigned to a product category.
The following product line categories were identified as representing
the range of E&IT equipment most useful to people with disabilities:
- Public/Business—Equipment
that might be used by the general public or shared in an office
environment
- Computer Technology—Computer
hardware, peripherals, and software
- Entertainment—Equipment
that can be used for personal entertainment
- Household—Common devices
found within the home
- Personal Care—Equipment
useful for health maintenance and monitoring
- Communications—Equipment
useful to facilitate communications
The purpose of the product categories was to aid in
the selection process. The highest-ranking product line in each
product category was selected for study. This process ensured that
two similar products were not selected for study and that the resulting
list of product lines would be sufficiently diverse. Table 1 contains
the list of candidate product lines by product category.
Table 1: Candidate Product Lines
Six criteria were defined for the purpose of
evaluating the candidate product lines. We identified the desirable
characteristics of the product lines in this study and then developed
criteria that would enable us to evaluate those characteristics
within a wide range of products. For example, products studied under
this research effort should play an important role in the lives
of people with disabilities. Therefore, an important selection criterion
is the perceived importance of the product line. If a product is
considered relatively unimportant in the lives of the users, then
it should be less likely to be selected as a product line for further
study. The following is a list of selection criteria used by the
project team in selecting the product lines.
Criterion 1: Perceived product importance in the lives
of people with disabilities
Justification: It is critically
important that this research results in meaningful data that helps
influence policy and increases the opportunities for members of
the disability community to interact with technology. Therefore,
this research should focus on the study of universal design in
products that are likely to have a substantial impact on the lives
of people with disabilities.
Definition: The level of importance
this product type has in the lives of people with disabilities.
The potential for this product line to improve the safety, comfort,
and independence of people with disabilities will be considered.
Source: Wireless RERC user survey,
expert opinion.
Criterion 2: Evidence of universal design
Justification: It is important
to select a product line in which there is evidence that UD is
at least a goal. Preference should be given to product lines that
have made progress toward the development of accessible products
so that their achievements can be studied and made available to
the benefit of others.
Definition: The degree to which
specific products within a given product line exhibit accessible
characteristics or evidence of universal design.
Source: Consumer recognition,
accessibility evaluations, self-reporting.
Criterion 3: Evidence of marketing and use
Justification: In order for the
project to maximize its impact, product lines should be selected
in market segments that are actively promoted to and used by members
of the disability community. Evidence of marketing/promotion may
be a useful indicator of industry recognition of a viable market.
Such market segments may be more open to collaboration and will
provide more fertile ground for mining information about UD practices.
It is also desirable that the product line represent devices and
services that members of the disability community actually find
useful. Such devices are likely to generate widespread interest
in the disability community and maximize the potential impact
of the program.
Definition: The degree to which
the product type is marketed to, and used by, a variety of consumer
groups within the disability community.
Source: Self-reporting, inspection,
Wireless RERC user survey.
Criterion 4: Willingness of industry partners to share
proprietary data
Justification: It would be naïve
to exclude the viability of industry partnerships from the selection
criteria because much of the success of the project depends on
the willingness of industry to share learning experiences and,
in some cases, proprietary data, that will be necessary to achieve
the project objectives.
Definition: The willingness of
industry representatives to share proprietary information pertaining
to product design, testing, and evaluation.
Criterion 5: Affordability of product line
Justification: One of the parameters
that affect the accessibility of a product line is cost. If the
cost of a given product is such that consumers with disabilities
are unable to afford it, then that product is, by definition,
inaccessible.
Definition: The level of affordability
of this product type to the general disability community.
Criterion 6: Applicability of government regulations
Justification: One of the purposes
of this study is to review the impact of government regulations
on the development and marketing of universally designed products.
Therefore, it is important to study a number of products that
have been directly impacted by government regulations.
Definition: The degree to which
government regulations impact the design, development, and marketing
of the product.
Each candidate product line was rated by a team of
six experts. The raters were recruited from staff at the Georgia
Tech Research Institute, the IDEAL Group, and the Center for Assistive
Technology and Environmental Access. Each member of the evaluation
team had a background in accessibility research, and several had
experience evaluating and designing accessible products. For each
product line, the raters were asked to rate each selection criterion
on a scale of 1 (poor) to 5 (very good). The scores for each criterion
were then added together to derive a product line score. For the
purpose of this analysis, each selection criterion was weighted
equally.
Product line scores from each evaluation team member
were added together to form a single composite score for each candidate
product line. The results of the analysis were discussed with the
evaluation team, and no modifications to the original assessments
were deemed necessary. The candidate product lines within each category
were then sorted by their composite scores and arranged into product
categories. The highest-scoring product line in each product category,
based on the composite score, was selected for inclusion in this
study. Table 2 contains the results of the analysis.
Table 2: Candidate Product Line Evaluation Results
The household and personal care categories were
eliminated because their direct relevance to accessibility legislation
was perceived as limited. Furthermore, the desktop computer product
line was deemed too broad for a meaningful study and was narrowed
down to a particular class of software (distance learning software).
The microwave oven product line was replaced with voice recognition
software. The glucose monitor product line was replaced with PDAs.
The following product lines were selected for study and approved
by NCD:
- ATM
- Cellular phone
- Distance learning software
- PDA
- Television
- Voice recognition software
ATMs. The classic definition of an
ATM is an unattended machine, external to some banks, that dispenses
money when a personal coded card is used. Access to and management
of personal finances is an important part of living an independent
lifestyle. ATMs can provide convenient and secure access to these
functions. ATMs allow individuals to make transactions independently
and privately without requiring human interaction at times that
are convenient for individuals. ATMs are used for banking purposes
such as making cash withdrawals, making deposits, checking balances,
transferring money between accounts, and printing statements.
Accessibility of ATMs is affected by the design of
the machine itself and by the way the machine is installed. Thus,
while accessibility features of ATMs are important, the actual installation
of the ATM can severely limit the accessibility of the overall product.
For example, an accessible ATM can be created, but if it is installed
in a location that is not wheelchair accessible, it is useless to
users with lower-mobility impairments.
A feature such as a talking ATM greatly increases
the accessibility for a person with impaired or no vision. Users
who are blind or who have limited vision can typically learn what
buttons to press to complete the transaction; but the software is
often updated, changing the options and, subsequently, requiring
the user to relearn the correct pattern of selections. In addition,
a person who is blind has no way to verify the amount requested
for a withdrawal or the balance. Talking ATMs can provide equal
access for people who are blind and visually impaired.
The ATM industry, perhaps more than others, is comfortable
working with government and banking regulations from a variety of
different markets because ATMs are designed for and marketed to
the global community. In addition, market considerations heavily
influence this industry. Banking institutions are very reluctant
to purchase additional accessibility features or replace existing
equipment, which may have been in operation for 20 or more years,
in favor of more accessible designs.
Cellular Phones. Cell phones provide
a communication option in case of an emergency and allow individuals
to keep in contact with friends, family, and business associates.
People truly enjoy their portability, and for many people, cell
phones have become indispensable. Cell phones give us the ability
to make telephone calls; surf the Web without a computer; take a
photo and immediately send it to someone else; and receive messages,
stock quotes, news, and other information, anywhere and any time.
Accessible versions of cellular phones can enhance
the lives of people with disabilities in many ways. Easier data
entry reduces the number of button presses required to perform an
action. Because a cell phone can be used for much more than voice
communication, simplified data entry allows a user to use it more
readily as a data device, write messages, collect and store information,
and even make purchases. Accessibility is enhanced, in part, through
the Fastap™ keypad (Fastap, n.d.), an extremely simple, intuitive,
and powerful computer interface that fits in a small mobile phone
and provides a full alphanumeric keypad. A full alphanumeric keypad
greatly increases the ability of a person with a vision impairment
to input text.
Loopsets increase clarity and reduce background noise
for those with some types of hearing aids. For both persons with
vision impairments and those with upper-mobility impairments, voice
dialing provides an improved mechanism for making a phone call.
Voice can also be used to identify the source of an incoming call
and to facilitate menu navigation, which particularly benefits those
without sight. Inclusion of visual, auditory, and vibrating indicators
increases the opportunity for all users to be aware of various states
(e.g., new voice mail, low battery).
An accessible cellular phone can serve as an excellent
travel companion. France Telecom, one of the world’s leading
telecommunications carriers, has some products in development for
facilitating travel, such as a means to create a travel diary that
can include descriptions, notes, photos, and so forth that can later
be converted to a Web site. The phone can be used to access recordable
and downloadable information about historic monuments, for example.
The same device may be useful for those with a cognitive disability
who have difficulty remembering places or events, such as the location
of a parked car.
In general, an accessible cellular phone will allow
all users, regardless of their disabilities, to use most of the
features necessary for day-to-day activities. Currently, there is
a large divide in the number of features that can benefit various
users.
The study of this industry is interesting for three
reasons. First, the accessibility issues associated with cellular
phones are fairly well understood. No one contests the fact that
there are hearing aid compatibility issues with digital cellular
phones, or that operation of many phone features requires vision.
Second, market considerations, such as miniaturization and the need
to produce low-cost products quickly in order to remain competitive,
seem to run counter to many accessibility requirements. As keypads
become smaller and more stylized, many users find that operation
of the keypad is difficult, and some users with upper-mobility impairments
find dialing to be impossible. Finally, government regulations,
or the threat thereof, have caused many companies to scramble for
solutions that can be implemented economically.
PDAs. PDAs store, analyze, and retrieve
needed information, on demand, any time and anywhere. The functionality
of PDAs has grown significantly beyond the traditional tasks of
time and contact management. A PDA serves as a portable personal
computer and augmentative communications device. Some of the many
industries using PDAs are health care, building/construction, engineering,
food service, and sales. PDAs are useful for dispatching crews and
managing mobile personnel. In addition, PDAs are used for leisure-time
activities.
PDAs provide “anywhere access,” allowing
individuals to keep track of and organize information relevant to
their day-to-day activities. They are portable, allowing individuals
to possess information in a variety of contexts. They can be used
as a calculator, address book, calendar, memo pad, expense tracker,
and an electronic information storage device. While PDAs are particularly
useful in the business world, they serve as an excellent memory
aid for any individual. Information can be transferred between the
PDA and a personal computer (PC), providing portable access to information.
Currently, the accessibility of such devices is limited,
but a market for accessible PDAs is emerging. In the future, PDAs
will significantly increase access to information and facilitate
control of surrounding devices for everyone. Such devices, especially
those based on the Pocket PC platform, will support a variety of
input methods that may be tailored to an individual’s specific
functional capabilities and limitations. Their inherent ability
to control external devices, via Bluetooth, WiFi networking, or
IR (infrared), will eventually lead to increased access to devices
such as televisions and information kiosks.
An accessible PDA can serve as an excellent travel
companion (France Telecom, 2003). (See www.francetelecom.com) France
Telecom has some products in development for facilitating travel.
A PDA can serve as a tourist guide, providing information about
restaurants, banks, and emergency services. It can also serve as
a guide for attendees at conferences and trade shows, providing
assistance in locating specific exhibitors or getting schedule information.
A future use of PDAs might be service as a personal
captioning device that could be worn by a person who is deaf or
hard of hearing in a movie theater, lecture hall, or meeting room.
Speech-to-text software might be used to automatically convert a
speaker’s words to captions in real time. The system would
make it possible for the user to follow along in real time when
a sign language translator isn’t available. In a movie theater,
the system would draw on the captions that normally come prepackaged
with films, but that usually are not displayed at public venues.
As the captions are being entered, a transmitter sends them to a
PDA carried by the user. The user can read the text right off the
PDA screen or off of a 30-gram, commercially available mini-monitor
that clips onto his or her glasses. With the mini-monitor, the user
can keep an eye on the action and read the captions at the same
time (Technology Review, 2003/2004).
In general, an accessible PDA will allow all users,
regardless of their disabilities, to use most of the features necessary
for day-to-day activities. Currently, there is a large divide in
the number of features that can benefit various users.
Television. Television is a medium
that entertains, informs, and educates; it can also serve as a companion
to people who, due to circumstances beyond their control, are limited
to their homes. Traditionally, people have used TVs to receive news
reports and watch movies, sports events, and other programming.
Technologically advanced TV systems allow viewers to play interactive
games, take a distance learning course, send instant messages, surf
the Web, send an email, and shop for and purchase products. High-definition
television (HDTV) is a television system that has more than the
usual number of lines per frame, so its pictures show more detail.
Interactive television (iTV) provides richer entertainment, interaction,
and more information pertaining to the shows, props, and their creators.
In a sense, iTV combines traditional TV viewing with the interactivity
enjoyed by those communicating through the Internet.
The Federal Government has mandated that most new
television sets must have closed captioning equipment built into
the devices. Such equipment has benefited those learning English
as a second language and those watching television in noisy environments,
in addition to the obvious benefit to individuals who are deaf or
hard of hearing.
The inclusion of televisions in the product lines
of this research was important because the product line facilitated
the study of a situation where the Federal Government imposed a
hard restriction on a specific industry. The addition of the closed
captioning chip is often touted as a success story of government
regulation; however, the industry as a whole did not take up the
banner of accessibility in meeting this requirement. For example,
the accessibility of remote controls and on-screen menus is often
lacking, creating additional barriers. It was instructive to contrast
mandated accessibility features with the softer technical requirements
of Section 508 that govern the purchase of E&IT by the Federal
Government.
Distance Learning Software. Distance
learning is a means of providing educational content via audio,
video, or computer technologies, whether for an academic program
or a business setting. The content may be live or prerecorded. Distance
learning is a feasible method of continuing one’s education
without the need to be physically present in a classroom. Web-based
distance learning is a great benefit to those whose schedules demand
that their education be self-paced, those who are geographically
separated from the classroom, and those who have disabilities that
make physical access to the classroom difficult. In a typical distance
learning environment, the student must have access to classroom
materials such as documents, animations, and videos. In addition,
students must be able to participate in class exercises via email
or group chat sessions.
Accessible distance learning can provide the opportunity
for a larger number of people to participate in the learning process
and can increase the speed at which people with various impairments
can complete the requirements of the course. Distance learning removes
many of the barriers associated with traditional learning environments,
such as transportation, general mobility, building access, and information
processing limitations. Although much is known about the accessibility
issues of the technologies required to facilitate access to distance
learning courses, a significant effort is required to develop accessible
content.
Voice Recognition Software. Voice
recognition technology (VRT) is a means of providing input via voice
rather than mechanical means. It is particularly useful for people
who do not have hands, who have limited functioning of their hands,
or who cannot see the input options or activate the correct control
to submit input. VRT by itself is neither accessible nor inaccessible.
It is the integration of VRT into other products and services that
can help make those products and services more accessible and usable.
VRT, also referred to as speech recognition technology (SRT), provides
telecommunications and computing devices with the ability to recognize
and carry out voice commands or take dictation.
There are different types of speech recognition systems,
some of which are better suited for certain people. There are systems
that require training, and those that don’t. Speaker-dependent
systems, trained to recognize a particular individual’s voice,
are better able to process an individual’s speech patterns,
but they can take a significant amount of time to train. There are
also continuous versus discrete speech recognition systems in which,
respectively, the user can talk at a normal rate or is required
to talk with pauses between words.
Voice recognition enhances quality of life and independence
for everyone. A number of new products, such as tablet PCs, information
kiosks, and interactive voice response (IVR) systems, have speech
recognition/production capabilities built into the devices. Users
do not have to use their hands when operating a device that incorporates
speech recognition. This technology is also useful in a hands-busy
environment, such as when a radiologist analyzes X-rays by holding
them up to the light and voice dictates the results to a computer.
It is also helpful when operating small devices like cell phones
and PDAs.
VRTs can be used to enable people to access a Web
site using a telephone. Extending access of a commercial Web site
to telephones can attract new customers who may not be in a position
to use a computer connected to the Internet, such as an individual
who is blind or visually impaired. Accessibility can be further
enhanced through VoiceXML standards. The Voice Extensible Markup
Language (VXML) Forum is an industry organization established to
promote VoiceXML as the universal standard for speech-enabled Web
applications for creating Web content and services that can be accessed
by phone.
Speech display/recognition systems represent a large
step forward in usability and accessibility of computing devices.
Until recently, the inaccuracy of voice recognition systems has
hampered their deployment. In the future, embedded speech recognition/production
systems will enhance the accessibility of a variety of common electronic
and information technologies and are therefore worthy of study.
Section D: Definition of the Market Environment—Literacy
The Workforce Investment Act of 1998 defines literacy
as “an individual’s ability to read, write, speak in
English, compute and solve problems at levels of proficiency necessary
to function on the job, in the family of the individual, and in
society.”
The International Adult Literacy Survey (Adult Literacy
Survey, 2003) was a 22-country initiative conducted between 1994
and 1998. In every country, nationally representative samples of
adults between the ages of 16 and 65 were interviewed and tested
at home, using the same literacy test. The main purpose of the survey
was to find out how well adults use information to function in society.
Another aim was to investigate the factors that influence literacy
proficiency and to compare these factors among countries.
According to the National Institute for Literacy,
“Very few adults in the U.S. are truly illiterate. Rather,
there are many adults with low literacy skills who lack the foundation
they need to find and keep decent jobs, support their children’s
education, and participate actively in civic life.” According
to the National Adult Literacy Survey (NALS), between 21 and 23
percent of the adult population, or approximately 44 million people,
scored between 0 and 20 percent on literacy proficiency. Another
25–28 percent of the adult population, or between 45 and 50
million people, scored between 20 and 40 percent. Literacy experts
believe that adults with skills at these levels lack a sufficient
foundation of basic skills to function successfully in our society.
Many factors help to explain the relatively large
number of adults in the 0–20 percent category. Twenty-five
percent of adults in this category were immigrants who may have
just been learning to speak English. In addition, more than 60 percent
did not complete high school; more than 30 percent were over the
age of 65; more than 25 percent had physical or mental conditions
that kept them from fully participating in work, school, housework,
or other activities; and almost 20 percent had vision problems that
affected their ability to read print. A large percentage of the
population in the United States are at literacy proficiency below
40 percent. Design for individuals with limited literacy skills
also accommodates individuals who have learning disabilities or
cognitive disabilities that impact reading comprehension.
Section E: Customer Analysis
Visual Impairments
There are approximately 10 million people in the United
States who are blind or visually impaired and about 6 million in
the European Union (EU). Visual impairments include the following:
blindness, partially sighted, low vision, and color blindness. In
addition to medical conditions that impact vision, visual perception
may be impacted by distraction from a busy, cluttered visual environment,
visual fatigue, colored or high- or low-lighting conditions, and
adverse weather conditions. Users with visual impairments may encounter
great difficulty or find it impossible to complete the following
types of tasks:
- Locating equipment
- Locating commands/devices
- Identifying commands/devices
- Using touchscreens
- Reading text on a screen
- Selecting objects on a screen
- Receiving graphics and video
information
- Receiving visual alerts and
signals
- Inserting cards/coins/media
- Reading printed material, including
instruction manuals
In general, people with impaired vision may have difficulty
perceiving visual detail, focusing on objects either close up or
at a distance, separating objects that do not have sufficient contrast,
perceiving objects in both central and peripheral vision, perceiving
color and contrast brightness, adapting to different light levels,
tracking moving objects, and judging distances (Story, Mueller,
and Mace, 1998).
Hearing
Impairments
More than 24 million people in the United States and about 22 million
in the EU have a significant loss of hearing. Hearing impairments
include the following: deafness, hard of hearing, conductive hearing
loss, sensorineural hearing loss, and mixed hearing loss (both conductive
and sensorineural). In addition to medical conditions that impact
hearing, auditory perception may be impacted by attending to multiple
sound sources, functioning in loud environments, and using headphones.
Users who are deaf or hard of hearing may encounter great difficulty
or find it impossible to complete the following tasks:
- Receiving audio information
- Understanding speech information
- Receiving acoustic alerts and
signals
- Using speech input
In general, people with impaired hearing may have
difficulty localizing the source or direction of sound, filtering
out background sound, perceiving both high- and low-pitched sounds,
and carrying on a conversation (Story, Mueller, and Mace, 1998).
Mobility
Impairments
More than 40 million people in the United States and about 32 million
in the EU have a significant loss of mobility. Mobility impairments
can include the following symptoms: tremors and spasticity, paralysis
and partial paralysis, amputation, and loss of coordination and
strength. In addition to medical conditions that impact mobility,
mobility may be impacted by pain, fatigue, availability of one hand
or arm while the other is occupied with another task, wearing thick
clothing or gloves, small hands, wet or oily hands, and adverse
environmental conditions (e.g., bad weather or uneven terrain).
Users with mobility impairments may encounter great difficulty or
find it impossible to complete the following tasks:
- Using switches
- Lifting/holding devices and
handsets
- Using dials
- Using numeric keypads
- Writing with a keyboard
- Handling a pointing device
- Using a touchscreen
- Inserting cards/coins/media
- Handling printed manuals and
books
- Accessing equipment
In general, people with impaired mobility may have
difficulty with tasks requiring range of motion, coordination, strength,
and balance. More specifically, difficulties may be apparent in
the following areas: reaching, pushing, pulling, lifting, lowering,
carrying, grasping, squeezing, rotating, twisting, and pinching
(Story, Mueller, and Macel, 1998).
Cognitive
Disabilities
More than 12 million people in the United States and 9 million in
the EU have a significant cognitive disability. Cognitive disabilities
can include the following: dyslexia, cerebral palsy, retardation,
and severe learning disabilities. In addition to medical conditions
that impact cognition, cognitive processing may be impacted by a
limited vocabulary or grammar, limited literacy, cultural or language
differences, fatigue, or distraction. Users with cognitive disabilities
may encounter great difficulty or find it impossible to complete
the following tasks:
- Writing on a keyboard
- Reading text on a screen
- Reading printed material
- Understanding speech information
- Handling a pointing device,
such as a mouse
- Navigating complex menu structures
- Responding quickly
In general, people with impaired cognition may have
difficulty “…receiving, comprehending, interpreting,
remembering, or acting on information.” More specifically,
difficulties may be apparent in the following areas: beginning a
task without a prompt or reminder, responding within an appropriate
time frame, concentrating, comprehending visual or auditory information,
understanding or expressing language, following procedures or doing
things in order, organizing information, remembering things, making
decisions and solving problems, and learning new things or doing
things a new or different way (Story, Mueller, and Mace, 1998).
Individuals 65+ Years of Age
The number of people 65+ years of age living in the
United States is approximately 36 million (Population, 2003). In
the top five emerging markets, the number of people 65+ years of
age is 174 million. Aging populations cannot see, hear, think or
move about as easily as younger generations. Fifty-two percent (U.S.
Census Bureau, 1997) of people 65+ years of age experience one or
more of the following (Telecommunications Industry, 1996):
- Decreased visual acuity
- Reduced powers of accommodation
- Decreased contrast sensitivity
- Increased sensitivity to glare
- Longer dark adaptation times
- Decreased color vision and discrimination
- Hearing impairments
-
Consumers Living in Low-Bandwidth
Information Infrastructures
It is not uncommon for people living in the United
States to take the Internet, and the bandwidth that comes with it,
for granted. The United States and Canada have the technical capacity
to provide bandwidth of 1,182 Mbps per capita (Haub, 2003). Developers
of Web-based content targeted for use by U.S. and Canadian consumers
do not necessarily need to concern themselves with limited bandwidth.
In comparison, Asia has only 21 Mbps of bandwidth available per
capita (Light Reading, 2002). Five billion consumers live within
low-bandwidth infrastructures. This provides a significant business
incentive to design Web-based content that is accessible, usable,
and useful from within low-bandwidth infrastructures.
People Who Never Learned To Read
There are 7 million people who never learned to read
living in the United States. Compare this to the 439 million consumers
who never learned to read living in the five countries with the
largest potential emerging markets. People who are not able to read
cannot use ATMs, PDAs, or the Web, unless they are designed with
access in mind. People who never learned to read can benefit significantly
from voice dialing and talking ATMs (Literacy Demographic Data,
2003).
Users of English as a Second
Language (ESL)
The number of people believed to speak English as
a second language is around 300 million. Users of ESL include individuals
whose mother tongue is not English, but who live in countries where
English has official or joint official status. In these instances,
English is often used to conduct official business. English is the
official or joint official language of more than 70 countries.
There are approximately 375 million speakers of English
as a first language. There are approximately 750 million speakers
who have learned English as a foreign language (ESL Online Education
and Training, 2000). In 2000, 28.4 million foreign-born people resided
in the United States, representing 10.4 percent of the total U.S.
population. ESL programs are the fastest-growing component of state-administered
adult education programs. In 1997–98, 48 percent of adult
education enrollments were in ESL programs, compared with 33 percent
in 1993–94. Of the 1997–98 ESL students in adult education,
32 percent were in beginning ESL classes, 12 percent in intermediate
classes, and 4 percent in advanced classes (National Institute for
Literacy, 2003). As evidenced by these statistics, the needs of
users who are not native-born English speakers must be considered
when designing accessible products.
Consumers Living in High-Density
Populations
Population densities were calculated by dividing the
area of land of a given country (Area, 2003) by that country’s
population (Population, 2003). People per square kilometer is one
of the factors considered when calculating the average number of
people that will have to wait in line to use any given ATM, self-service
kiosk, or self-checkout point-of-sale device in a country. There
are three people per square kilometer of available land space living
in Canada. The number of people per square kilometer living in the
United States is 31. This is 10 times that of Canada. On average,
the transaction time required when using an ATM or other self-service
device needs to be faster in the United States than in Canada if
the ratio of the number of self-service devices to size of geographical
area is the same. Designing for access can reduce transaction times
and increase customer satisfaction. Designing ATMs for faster use
can be a competitive advantage in emerging markets, where population
densities skyrocket. For example, in China there are 138 people
per square kilometer. In India the number rises to 352.
High-Language-Density
Populations
Large numbers of people living in areas where a large
number of languages are spoken increase the complexity of delivering
more accessibly designed interfaces. There are 25 languages spoken
by a minimum number of 750,000 people living in China. In India
there are 54 languages (SIL, 2003). This poses a challenge to accessible
design. Companies must devise solutions to designing accessible
products for high-language-density populations that meet the needs
of all speakers.
Consumers in Situations
That Reduce Sensory or Visual Capabilities
Designing for access does more than just benefit users
with disabilities who desire accessibility features; UD practices
also benefit all consumers when they find themselves in various
situations that reduce their sensory or visual capabilities. For
example, one accessibility feature for cellular phones that is rated
as very important by users who are blind is voiced menu options.
In addition to making cell phones more accessible to individuals
who are blind, this feature benefits users driving in their cars
who would rather focus their visual attention and capabilities on
driving than on navigating through their cellular phone menus to
find a phone number or make a call. This feature also is important
in increasing the user’s safety in such situations.
Another important accessibility feature for cellular
phones that benefits all consumers, which was designed with hard-of-hearing
users in mind, is adjustable volume control. When a consumer is
navigating through a noisy environment such as a mall, construction
site, or airport, it is often hard to hear a phone ring or to hear
the person you’re talking to on the other end of the line.
The volume-control feature, initially marketed to a specific disability
group, also benefits all consumers, with or without a disability,
who find themselves in such a situation.
As another example, consider the design of buttons
for ATMs, cellular phones, and PDAs. Larger keypad buttons are an
important accessibility features for individuals with low vision
or upper-mobility impairments. However, this feature has also appealed
to consumers whose dexterity is limited when they are wearing winter
gloves, for example. Larger keypad buttons make it easier for them
to withdraw money from an outdoor ATM or to make a phone call while
wearing gloves. In addition to larger buttons, larger displays on
cellular phones and PDAs, an accessibility feature marketed to users
with low vision, is another feature that benefits all consumers
who are, for example, operating a device at night or in a foggy
environment.
Accessibility features of televisions, such as closed
captioning, can be beneficial to any consumers who are at a noisy
party or watching a sports match in a restaurant, where their auditory
capabilities are limited.
These are just a few examples of situations in which
features that are designed with users with disabilities in mind
actually increase the accessibility and appeal of products for the
wider population. Companies should consider that when they design
for accessibility, they benefit from offering products that will
appeal to the general population as well as users with disabilities.
Section F: Analysis of the International Market
The scope of this analysis includes countries other
than the United States. While it is natural for one to think locally
(the United States), industry is global. International (including
U.S.) business drivers for accessible design have far more impact.
The business justification for this approach lies in the fact that,
according to the Department of Commerce’s (DOC’s) Economic
and Statistics Administration, more than 95 percent of the world’s
economic activity takes place outside of the United States, and
the majority of the world’s market is untouched by most U.S.-based
businesses. Only 12 percent of U.S. businesses export their products,
although a much greater percentage of them are able to do so (Czinkota,
2001).
Information provided in this section of the report
was taken directly from 2004 country commercial guides (CCGs) prepared
by U.S. embassy staff. This section specifically focuses on the
section of each county’s guide that identifies the leading
sectors for U.S. exports and investments. CCGs are published once
a year and contain information on the business, economic situation,
and political climate of foreign countries as they affect U.S. business.
Each CCG contains the same chapters and an appendix that includes
topics such as marketing, trade regulations, investment climate,
and business travel.
Economic activity is not the same as gross domestic
product (GDP). The term economic activity, as used by the DOC, represents
the value of total imports and exports for a given country for a
given year. Total U.S. imports plus total U.S. exports for 2002,
expressed as a percentage of GDP, was less than 5 percent. U.S.
imports for 2002 totaled $1.165 trillion. Total exports totaled
$682 billion. The combined total was $1.847 trillion. Divide this
by $49 trillion, the world’s GDP, and that is how DOC expresses
this particular metric. If you compare apples to apples, world economic
activity for 2002 was $12.6 trillion. Divide this into $1.84 trillion,
and U.S. economic activity was 14.7 percent of world economic activity
in 2002.
The countries targeted for this study were not selected
based on market potential alone. They were also selected based on
the level of U.S. corporate investment in each of the five emerging
market countries covered in this report––that is, investments
that support the establishment of long-term business relationships.
Between 1990 and 2002, foreign direct investment (FDI) in the five
emerging market countries exceeded US$614 billion (Kearney, 2002).
Four-fifths of the world’s population live in developing countries.
The top 15 highest potential emerging markets account for 28.6 percent
(US$14 trillion) of the world’s gross domestic product (US$49
trillion). The door to emerging trade opportunities is being opened
by the increasing need for high-technology products and other capital
equipment. Supporting the growth, prosperity, and independence of
developing countries implies the use of information technology.
These technologies include telecommunication, education, and banking
infrastructures. According to Subhash Bhatnagar (n.d.) of the World
Bank, technology is a critical success factor in enabling developing
governments to reach out to their citizens for the purposes of—
- Improving delivery of services
to citizens
- Improving communications between
government and industry
- Empowering citizens by providing
access to knowledge and information
- Making the workings of government
more efficient, cost effective, successful, and self-sustaining
If the people living in developing countries are not
able to access and use the technologies fundamental to that country’s
growth and prosperity, that country will not succeed in achieving
acceptable qualities of life, independence, or employability for
its citizens.
The emerging markets selected to be part of this analysis
are made up of the top five developing countries, with the highest
populations, established by GlobalEDGE (2003) as having the highest
overall market potential. These countries are China, India, Russia,
Mexico, and Turkey.
China (China, 2003)
China:
Information Technology (IT)
China is home to one of the largest and fastest growing
IT markets in the world. According to statistics released by the
Ministry of Information Industry (MII), the 2002 total sales value
for E&IT products was US$169.5 billion, an increase of 17.8
percent over the previous year. This statistic refers to Chinese
imports. China imported approximately US$74 billion worth of IT
products in 2002. The total market size is estimated to be US$215
billion. According to both government and private sector sources,
the demand for IT products is expected to maintain a high growth
level due to rapid economic development in China and high demand
driven by favorable national policy and growing consumer power.
The Chinese government is now pursuing a national
development strategy of “using informatization to drive industrialization
and using industrialization to promote informatization.” Current
national development policies give top priority to development of
the IT industry and encourage wide application of IT in all economic
and social fields. According to MII, in 2002, the domestic E&
IT industry output was US$206.98 billion, up 20.9 percent over the
previous year, which is almost three times the growth rate of China’s
GDP in the same period. This statistic refers to industry output.
As China continues to develop as a center for manufacturing,
and as foreign investment, the strength of local companies, and
the affluence of local consumers all continue to increase, information
products and services—ranging from business applications to
digital consumer products—will drastically increase in the
next 5 to 10 years. Major drivers of growth include China’s
e-government initiative, e-commerce development, “two pillars
of the economy” initiative (i.e., the development of national
software and integrated circuit [IC] industries), as well as China’s
need to enhance its competitiveness across all industrial sectors
due to the rapid pace of globalization as a result of its access
to the World Trade Organization (WTO). The 2008 Olympic Games will
also provide a strong impetus for growth in demand of IT products
and services in the next five years. It is estimated that Beijing
will spend close to US$3.6 billion on IT infrastructure and systems
to meet the needs of the Olympic Games.
As a concrete measure to implement its strategy of
using informatization to drive industrialization, the Chinese government
initiated an ambitious e-government program in 2001. According to
the China Center of Information Industry Development (CCID), a local
consulting firm, the Chinese government has thus far spent a total
of US$4.2 billion on e-government projects. In the next two to three
years, the compound growth rate of government spending on IT will
be 25.7 percent. More than US$12.1 billion will be spent on e-government
over the next five years.
Since the bursting of investment bubbles in dot-com
ventures, China’s Internet business market seems to have recovered
its vigor for growth. The three major portals, Sina.com, Sohu.com,
and Netease.com, all claimed to have made profits since the second
half of 2002. With short messaging service (SMS), online advertisement,
online gaming, and online trade, these major portals are finding
their way to sustainable and profitable business models. The progress
made by these portals is an encouraging factor to e-commerce development,
which will create huge demand for IT products, from hardware to
software, from system software to innovative applications and services.
Driven by huge demand and facilitated by favorable
investment policies, China’s IC industry returned to a fast
track of growth in 2002. The growth in China’s IC market seems
to have caught the world’s attention. According to CCID, China’s
2002 IC market size reached US$21.54 billion, accounting for 15.3
percent of the world market. That said, currently, 85 percent of
China’s domestic IC demand is met by imports.
Although China is now playing a significant role in
electronics and information products manufacturing (total production
volume is believed to have surpassed that of Japan to become the
world’s second largest producer), it still lacks core technologies
for almost all of the products it produces. For instance, China
is the number 1 producer of mobile handsets, but core chips needed
to produce the phones must be imported. The same is true for other
products, including DVDs, high-end color TVs, computers, and monitors.
Although the government has promulgated policies to encourage the
development of IC and software, China’s heavy reliance on
imports for high-end chips, parts, and components for most of the
electronics and information products is not expected to change significantly
for as long as a decade. With leading technologies in almost all
fields of information technology, U.S. companies have a great advantage
in meeting the increasing market demand for high-valued-added chips,
devices, and components.
Other best prospects include production lines and
equipment for the manufacture of E&IT products, including semiconductors.
More and more world manufacturing capacity is moving to the country
where demand for highly sophisticated modern manufacturing lines
almost solely relies on imports from developed countries. For instance,
China is currently not capable of producing critical semiconductor
equipment for processing 0.18-micron chips. In this area, China
is two generations behind the latest world technological levels.
Demand for equipment and instruments for processing, packaging,
and testing chips will be met only by imports. Moreover, software
tools and intellectual property cores for designing chips appear
to provide good sales opportunities for U.S. companies.
Consumer electronics is another area of high growth.
According to CCID, China’s 2002 sales of digital cameras,
mobile storage devices (flash memory), MP3 players, and digital
video cameras increased more than 100 percent from 2001. PDAs are
also an area with deep potential for growth. U.S. companies have
a big role to play in supplying the operating system, core chips,
or production expertise for these products.
However, the key to succeeding in any of the above
“best prospects” markets is to localize your products.
Although there is great demand, U.S. suppliers are not the only
source. Competitors in Europe and Asia (e.g., Japan, Taiwan, and
Korea) are also trying to meet the demand. It is imperative that
U.S. companies understand the market and the specific needs/demands
of Chinese customers in order to take full advantage of the market.
Although U.S. companies still dominate much of the
high-end hardware market in China’s fast-growing computer
market—such as high-end servers, printers, routers, and network
equipment—their dominance is severely challenged by fledgling
local players such as Lenovo (the new brand name for Legend Corp.).
CCID’s 2002 statistics show signs of a maturing market, with
emphasis of demand shifting toward software and IT services. U.S.
companies such as IBM and HP, and software giants Microsoft, Oracle,
Sybase, and BEA keep dominance on China’s system software,
platform software, applications, and IT consulting services market.
Table 3: China’s Information Technology Market
Notes: The figures above are calculated
in millions of U.S. dollars and represent unofficial estimates.
Trade numbers are based on Chinese customs figures for the HTS codes
8470–8473, 8517–8534, and 8540–8542. Local production
figures are from MII. The MII figures for export in 2002 were US$92.1
billion and US$65.2 for 2001; domestic sales figures were US$162.79
billion for 2002 and US$143.88 for 2001.
China: Telecommunications Equipment
China’s telecommunications industry continued
the momentum of rapid growth in 2002, despite the downturn in the
industry worldwide. As of the end of May 2003, the total absolute
number of telephone users in China reached 462 million, among which
232 million were landlines subscribers and 230 million were cell
phone users. However, the penetration rates of fixed lines at 17.5
percent and mobiles at 16.2 percent clearly indicate there is room
for further growth. In the five years since 1997, China’s
telecommunications industry registered an average annual growth
rate of 20 percent.
In 2002, Chinese telecommunications carriers invested
US$25.4 billion in telecom infrastructure, compared with US$29 billion
in 2001. As a result, carriers were able to recruit 95.45 million
new telephone subscribers that year. Their aggregated revenue reached
US$55.36 billion, with China Telecom having a 32.5 percent share,
China Netcom 16.6 percent, China Mobile 37.4 percent, China Unicom
12.1 percent, and others (China Railcom and ChinaSat) 1.4 percent.
China’s MII, the most important government regulator
in the telecommunications industry, projected that Chinese telecommunications
carriers would invest US$25.5 billion in 2003 to recruit 33 million
fixed line telephone subscribers and 52 million cellular phone users.
MII expected the fixed line penetration rate to reach 19.4 percent
by the end of 2003 and cellular penetration rate to reach 20.1 percent.
The Chinese government is expected to grant third
generation (3G) licenses to four Chinese telecom operators in the
first half of 2004. Besides China Mobile and China Unicom, which
are the two incumbent mobile communication service providers, fixed
line operators, China Telecom and China Netcom, are also likely
to obtain such licenses.
A competitive market environment is taking shape in
China’s telecommunications sector. In 2004, China’s
six licensed basic telecom operators—China Telecom, China
Netcom, China Mobile, China Unicom, China Railcom and ChinaSat—are
expected to expand and optimize their networks in order to meet
the growing need for telecommunications services. Moreover, they
are expected to compete against each other as well as potential
competitors from multinational companies that are planning to explore
business opportunities in this lucrative market.
It is important to recognize that, while the Chinese
government appears committed to foster a more competitive telecommunications
service environment, this commitment does not necessarily mean that
equipment vendors with the best technology and/or lowest prices
will succeed in the Chinese marketplace.
China’s telecommunications equipment market
is characterized by intense competition and a multitude of complex,
multilayered political and economic factors that must be carefully
and appropriately evaluated in order to achieve success.
MII is subject to oversight by the State Council.
MII was created in March 1998 by merging the Ministry of Posts and
Telecommunications with the Ministry of Electronics Industry (MEI).
Other influential government agencies in China’s telecommunications
industry include the State Council Informatization Office (SCITO)
and the National Planning and Reform Commission (NPRC). SCITO was
set up in August 2001 as an interagency coordinating body to oversee
China’s regulatory and commercial developments in the IT and
telecommunications sectors and implement the central government’s
policies and measures that drive information technologies. NDRC
is the approver of important and large projects.
In March 2003, the former Party Secretary of Hebei
Province, Wang Xudong, replaced Wu Jichuan as the minister of MII.
In May, Minister Wang was also appointed the director of SCITO,
replacing Zeng Peiyan, who was promoted to serve as a State Councilor.
Having Wang as head of both MII and SCITO is a sign that the Chinese
government is moving to integrate its policies and strategies on
telecommunications and information industries.
China does not yet have a telecommunications law in
place. However, MII has promulgated telecommunications regulations
and regulations on foreign investment in the telecommunications
industry based on its WTO commitments.
MII requires that most telecom equipment, including
terminal devices such as cellular phones, fixed line phones, and
fax machines and network products like switches and base station
equipment, be tested and certified. There are two kinds of certificates:
(1) type of approval (TA) for radio products, and (2) telecom equipment
network access license (NAL) for all other products. MII’s
Radio Regulatory Department tests radio products and issues TA certificates,
while MII’s Telecom Administration Bureau issues telecom equipment
NALs.
In addition, certain telecom products may also need
to obtain a CCC mark (China Product Compulsory Certification mark)
from China’s State General Administration of Quality Supervision
and Inspection and Quarantine (AQSIQ). More information is available
on AQSIQ’s Web site, www.aqsiq.gov.cn or www.cnca.gov.cn,
or go to the following Web page for frequently asked questions on
the CCC mark: http://www.mac.doc.gov/China/Docs/BusinessGuides/CCCFAQ.htm.
Testing of products by the carriers is a must, even
if these products will be sold to local operators.
Larger vendors are advised to work directly with the
carriers to sell their products, while smaller firms may want to
start with agents and distributors that have the necessary resources,
connections, and technical support.
China: Telecommunications Subsectors
Mobile communications include the following 3G and
value-added service platforms:
- Value-added capabilities for
email and Web browsers and the ability to download ringing tones,
logos/images, music, videos, games, and stock market quotations
- Broadband access network equipment,
including wireless LAN, LMDS, and ADSL
- Operational management systems
like BOSS and multiple-service platforms
Table 4: China’s Telecommunications Equipment Market
Note: The above figures are calculated in millions
of U.S. dollars. They are taken in part from MII’s reported
top 15 Chinese telecom vendors’ sales estimates and represent
unofficial estimates.
China: Software
Market
China’s general computer market revenues increased
16 percent in 2002, totaling US$28.5 billion in sales. Of the overall
computer market revenues, hardware accounted for 67.2 percent, software
accounted for 14.6 percent, and information services accounted for18.2
percent. According to February 2003 reports in the CCID Consulting
News, the software market will continue to post strong growth as
a result of a favorable domestic economy and the trend of industries
and enterprises toward China’s informatization.
Within the software market, applications software
accounted for 64.5 percent of the total market; middleware accounted
for 6.6 percent, representing a 2.9 percent increase over the same
period last year; and platform software accounted for 28.9 percent.
In line with China’s overall rapid development in the IT sector,
market competition has become more intense.
China’s Tenth Five-Year Plan indicates
that the following software projects are the priorities:
- To develop security operation systems, security authentication
systems, and advance China’s e-commerce solutions
- To develop information security software packages that are
based on LINUX operation systems
- To develop production platforms that are based on the software
structure and middleware structure
China’s successful bid for the 2008
Olympic Games as well as its membership in the WTO will be
the main drivers for growth in the software market and industry
over the next several years. In 2003, the software tariffs
were eliminated (reduced to zero). Furthermore, China issued
a number of policies ranging from export incentives to value-added
tax rebates and financial assistance to small businesses, as
well as laws addressing intellectual property rights protection.
If U.S. companies can gain good access to the China market,
there should be positive opportunities in the software market.
Table 5: China’s Packaged Software
Import and Export Market:
Notes: The above figures are calculated in millions of U.S. dollars
and are representative of estimates from the China Customs Import
and Export data.
The table above is calculated based on HS codes 8524.31, 8524.39,
8524.40, 8524.91, and 8524.99; software downloaded from the Internet
is not included in the table above.
India (India, 2004)
India: Telecommunications Equipment
India’s 48 million-line telephone network is
among the top 10 networks in the world and the second largest among
the emerging economies, after China. India has one of the fastest-growing
telecommunications systems in the world, with system size (total
connections) growing at an average of more than 20 percent per annum
over the last four years. The network consists of more than 26,300
telephone exchanges, equipped with a capacity of nearly 48 million
lines and nearly 36 million working telephones. According to the
government of India telecom plan (1997–2007) prepared by Bharat
Sanchar Nigam Limited (BSNL), the demand for new telephone lines
during the period up to 2007 is estimated at 81.8 million. This
projected demand will necessitate approximately 64 million telephones
during the next eight years. BSNL and Mahanagar Telephone Nigam
Limited (MTNL) will provide about 43 million telephones, and private
operators will provide 21 million telephones. The industry is considered
to have the highest potential for investment in India. The growth
in demand for telecom services in India will be highest in basic
services, followed by national long distance, international long
distance, and the cellular services sectors.
India has a relatively low density of telephones,
4 per 100 persons, with plans to increase to 7 by 2005 and 15
by 2010. Tele-density in India rural areas is 0.5 per 100 people,
and the government plans to increase this to 4 per 100 by 2010.
A total of 500,105 out of 607,491 villages have been provided
with a village public telephone (VPT), i.e., one telephone per
village. Considering India’s
population of 1 billion, it is estimated that to achieve these
objectives, approximately 78 million telephone connections will
be required by the year 2005, and 175 million telephone connections
by the year 2010. At current prices, this translates to an additional
investment of approximately $37 billion by 2005 and $68 billion
by 2010.
The total subscriber base of cellular phones is currently at 13
million, up by 80 percent from the previous year. According to Cellular
Operators Association of India, it is estimated that the subscriber
base will reach 40 million by 2006 and 300 million by 2010, resulting
in huge opportunities for U.S. telecom equipment vendors.
The installation base of direct exchange lines (DELs) was at 37
million DELs in 2002 and is expected to grow to 82 million DELs
by 2007. DoT/ MTNL will provide about 80 percent of DELs of the
additional DELs. It is estimated that each DEL will cost about $900.
India has created a strong manufacturing base for producing telecom
products. Indian firms typically manufacture telecom switches with
technical and financial collaboration from foreign firms. Around
19 Indian firms manufacture small and medium-sized switches, and
7 joint ventures produce large capacity switches. Bharat Sanchar
Nigam LTD (BSNL) and government-owned MTNL are the largest end-users
of telecom switches.
The annual growth rate of net-switching capacity
of the recently privatized BSNL for the period 1992–97 was around 16–18
percent. However, the growth rate speeded up after 1997, registering
22–24 percent annually.
Value-added service providers are growing
by the day and are demanding good infrastructure. Email, Internet
services, frame relay services, video conferencing, electronic
data interchange, and voice mail have been accorded value-added
services status. These value-added services interface with
basic telecom services and increase telecom traffic several
fold. With the increased investment in the value-added services,
the demand for other switching products—such as
cellular switches, ISDN switches, gateway switches, and ATM switches—is
bound to grow sharply.
Digital switching system technologies of
multinational companies—Alcatel,
Siemens, Fujitsu, Lucent, Ericsson, and NEC—have been introduced
in India. In addition, switching systems based on the indigenous
technology developed by the state-owned Center for Development
of Telematics (C-DoT) are used.
The other promising sub-sectors are shown in Table 6.
Table 6: Other Promising Telecommunications Equipment
Sub-Sectors
Table 7: Total Combined Market for Telecommunications Equipment
in India
Notes: The data are in millions of U.S. dollars, based on an exchange
rate of $1 = INR 47.5. The date are unofficial estimates.
India: Computers and Peripherals
The Indian computers and peripherals market
is expected to continue to expand to meet local demands. Private
sector firms, government offices, small and medium-sized enterprises
(SMEs), and small office–home office (SOHO) users continue
to computerize their operations, contributing to the growth of the
computer hardware market.
The Indian software industry is enjoying a global leadership position
in software development and exports. Indian software exports reached
sales revenues of $10 billion, reflecting 30 percent growth over
the previous year. Domestic IT sales revenues also expanded during
2002–03, reaching $6.67 billion. The growing Indian software
and services sector continues to support growth in the computer
hardware sector.
IT-enabled services is another sector that witnessed impressive
growth. Existing projects are expanding and new ventures are being
established in India to capitalize on the highly skilled, cost-effective
manpower. This sector witnessed impressive sales revenue growth
from $1.49 billion in 2001–02 to approximately $2.46 billion
in 2002–03. These developments continue to support hardware
sales in the country.
India: Information Technology
The Indian IT industry is moving toward embedded technology requiring
software and hardware codesign. Multimedia, workflow automation,
virtual reality, and machine learning are some of the latest developments
requiring embedded hardware. Personal computers and servers continue
to dominate for office automation purposes.
A study conducted by Manufacturers Association of Information Technology
(MAIT) and Ernst & Young found that the Indian hardware sector
has the potential to grow to 12 times its present size, reaching
a sales turnover of $62 billion by 2010, with the domestic market
accounting for $37 billion and the balance for exports (source:
The Hindu Survey of Indian Industry).
More than 135 small, medium, and large firms manufacture computers
in India. Many
multinational companies (MNCs), such as HP, IBM, Siemens, Dell,
and ACER, have a strong presence and manufacturing facilities in
India. Lesser-known branded/unbranded locally assembled PCs and
Indian-branded PCs compete with MNC products. The market shares
of each element in this segment vary from year to year. During the
first six months of 2002–03, the locally assembled PCs had
a share of 48 percent; Indian brands had 22 percent, and MNC products
had a market share of 30 percent.
India imports most of the high-performance computers and peripherals
from the United States and Asian countries. Major Indian and U.S.
software and services companies such as CISCO, Cognizant Technologies,
IBM, Microsoft, Oracle, and Texas Instruments import and use high-performance
computer systems for their development projects. In addition, major
Indian and international banks, insurance companies, Indian stock
markets, Indian railways, and airlines also use high-performance
computers, including mainframes and mid-sized computers.
The national government of India and Indian state governments encourage
new investments in computer hardware projects.
The market size in 2003 of the various segments is given below:
- Desktops: $1,198 million
- Notebooks: $86 million
- Servers: $215 million
- Peripherals: $440 million
The estimates above are based on the literature from the following
sources:
- Manufacturers Association of Information Technology (MAIT),
www.mait.com
- National Association of Software and Service Companies (NASSCOM),
www.nasscom.org
- The Hindu Survey of Indian Industry, 2003
- India Infoline, www.Indiainfoline.com
Table 8: Computers and Peripherals in India
Notes: The data are in millions of U.S. dollars, based on an exchange
rate of $1 = INR 47.5. The date are unofficial estimates.
India: Computer Engineering Software and Services
The Indian software and services industry continues to show impressive
growth rates. The software industry grew at a compounded annual
growth rate (CAGR) of more than 50 percent during the last five
years. Even though there was a global economic slowdown, Indian
computer software exports jumped to $9.7 billion during 2002–03,
from $7.68 billion in 2001–02, reflecting growth of more than
26 percent. Domestic software and services also grew from $2.08
billion in 2000–01 to $2.45 billion in 2001–02.
The government of India aggressively supports this industry, which
is projected to reach exports of $50 billion by 2008. The Indian
government has undertaken initiatives such as simplification of
policy procedures, manpower development, venture capital support,
and infrastructure development to help promote the software industry.
International Data Corporation, India (IDC- India), a premier research
firm monitoring the IT industry worldwide, estimated the Indian
IT engineering services market at $442 million in 2001, $566 million
in 2002, and $633 million in 2003. IDC-India, in its report Directions
2003 for India, has estimated that the computer software engineering
sector grew by 18 percent in 2002–03 (April–March),
and is projected to grow at a CAGR of 11 percent during the years
2003–06.
Present and projected increased uses of IT applications in state
and central governments, e-governance applications, e-banking, elimination
of import duty on software, enhanced enforcement of antipiracy laws,
and the increased maturity of end-user organizations in using legal
software, have all contributed to the rapid growth of the Indian
software industry. According to India’s Department of Information
Technology, Indian IT spending as a percentage of GDP should reach
7 percent by 2008, from the present 3 percent.
U.S. software and IT services companies have found opportunities
by providing products and expertise that help to accelerate the
market’s growth. Notably, companies that provide tools and
systems for IT-enabled services, such as call centers and business
process outsourcing, have found good prospects in India. Likewise,
companies that provide Web-based e-governance and e-commerce solutions
will find interest from the Indians. The growing Internet service
provider (ISP) market will also demand leading-edge ISP operations
and user interface software. Appropriate software for vertical markets
such as banking, health care, textiles, and telecommunications will
also see an increase in demand.
The most promising IT sub-sectors had the following market sizes
in 2003, based on estimates in U.S. dollars:
- Systems & Packaging: $252 million
- Professional Services: $170 million
- Processing Services: $75 million
- Maintenance services: $151 million
Table 9: Information Technology in India
Note: The data are in millions of U.S. dollars, based on an exchange
rate of $1 = INR 47.5.
The estimates above are based on the literature from
the following sources:
Russia (Russia, 2004)
Russia: Telecommunications Equipment
The Russian telecommunications
market has demonstrated strong growth over the last year, driven
by Russia’s continuing strong economic performance and the
pressing need to upgrade the generally inadequate telecommunications
infrastructure throughout the country. In 2002, the Russian market
for telecommunications services grew 30 percent to $8.6 billion,
and it is expected to top $10 billion in 2003. Meanwhile the number
of cellular phones increased by 130 percent in 2002 to 17.7 million
and reached 24 million in June 2003. Internet subscribers doubled
in 2001 and 2002 and reached a 10 percent penetration rate in 2003.
Telecommunications equipment sales are running at
around $2 billion per year. At the beginning of 2003, Russia had
more than 32 million telephone lines, up from 29.7 million on January
1, 2002, and the waiting list has 5 million names. However, there
are more than 50,000 small rural communities without a single phone
line. An objective of the Russian government is to place a telephone
in every community or within an hour’s walk. Given Russia’s
vast size, this is ambitious, indeed.
Svyazinvest, the state-owned major fixed-line carrier,
has been asked by the government to increase the number of fixed
lines to 45 million by 2010. As tariffs are regulated at a low level,
and increases are likely to be quite gradual, much of the capital
expenditure budget is expected to come from outside investment.
In part to increase its attractiveness to investors, Svyazinvest
has completed a reorganization under which it has consolidated 70
regional phone companies into 7 super-regional telecom providers.
In the process, its market capitalization rose from $1 billion at
the initial phase of the reform in January 2001 to $1.8 billion
by early 2003. There has been some discussion over a potential sale
by the government of its 75-percent share in Svyazinvest.
Over the next three years, the highest growth rate
is expected in the broadband segment (xDSL, cable TV, and BWA).
Dial-up Internet access should grow by 20 percent per annum, and
the Internet segment should average 25-percent growth. Sales of
packet switching gear will grow by 55 percent per year, and the
virtual private network (VPN) market may triple. The cellular market,
which represents about 35 percent of the Russian telecom market
by value, is expected to maintain its market share, growing at the
average rate of the industry in general.
Continued growth in the Russian telecommunications
services market will yield business opportunities for competitive
U.S. telecommunications equipment suppliers. The best sales prospects
are digital switching equipment; high-speed, broadband Internet
access technologies; multiservice and multimedia solutions, including
synchronous digital hierarchy (SDH), xDSL, (integrated services
digital network (ISDN), dense wavelength division multiplexing (DWDM),
and BWA; and call-center equipment. Companies entering the market
should be prepared to compete with major foreign equipment manufacturers
and deal with a complex regulatory environment.
Table 10: Russia’s Telecommunications Equipment
Market
Note: The figures above are based on Russian Customs
statistics and may be an underestimate of U.S. imports. Because
of their corporate structures, some U.S. equipment manufacturers
ship products from their European warehouses. Russian Customs may
attribute such shipments to Europe rather than the United States,
despite the U.S. origin of the product.
Russia: Computers, Peripherals, and Computer Software
The Russian computer market represents one of the
promising emerging markets for U.S. firms and has solid potential
to grow. Industry sources estimate the IT market at $4.7 billion
in 2002. Many major U.S. companies are already present in the market,
and their products are available either directly or through representatives
or distributors. Of necessity, though, Russian consumers are extremely
price-sensitive and generally prefer a low-cost computer to a globally
recognized brand name.
The main trends in 2002 were a sizable increase in
government purchases, expansion to Russia’s regions, and strong
growth in laptop and server sales. Imports account for 15 percent
of Russia’s personal computer market, while peripherals, networking,
and larger system hardware are dominated by imports.
The total number of computers in Russia exceeded 12
million by January 2003, with a penetration rate of 9 percent. It
is estimated that by 2004 the number of Internet users will reach
15 million, and in the following seven years will grow to more than
35–40 million. The software market was estimated at $450 million
in 2002, and growing at an annual rate of 25 percent; it was predicted
to grow up to $600 million in 2003. The true demand for software,
though, is difficult to determine, due to the high level of pirated
software. Some industry sources estimate that piracy is up to 85
percent, but legislation (on patents and trademarks) and enforcement
(e.g., a new arbitration code) should improve that situation. In
2002 the market for outsourcing software services was estimated
up to $300 million. Total annual turnover of the systems integration
market grew to $840 million in 2002, and is projected to continue
its growth. This market sector is maturing, and new entrants will
likely face serious competition from long-established companies.
Continuing growth in the number and purchasing power
of SMEs is driving demand for legally imported operating systems,
software application packages, and enterprise management software.
The best opportunities for sales of U.S.-manufactured hardware computer
products in Russia appear to be peripherals, networking equipment,
and Internet technology.
Table 11: Computers, Peripherals, and Software in
Russia
Note: The figures above are based on Russian Customs
and U.S. Department of Commerce data and unofficial estimates.
Mexico (Mexico, 2004)
Mexico: Electronic Components
The electronics industry in Mexico is evolving. Fueled
by the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), the industry
has moved into new product lines, including automotive electronics,
network equipment, game consoles, printers, high-capacity servers,
storage media, and even semiconductor design. As the second most
important export industry in Mexico, the electronics industry imports
92 percent of the electronic components it requires, 85 percent
of which come from U.S suppliers. However, more and more components
are being imported from other areas of the world, mainly Asia and
Eastern Europe.
There are competitive advantages for Mexican electronics
firms to import components from U.S. suppliers under NAFTA, including
short lead times in transportation, virtually 100 percent duty-free
electronic components, and streamlined customs procedures. In addition,
NAFTA has led to increased foreign direct investment, and many of
the original equipment manufacturers are U.S. investment operations
that utilize U.S. components in their designs. U.S. market share
has declined, however, due to the Mexican government’s program
of sectoral promotion (PROSEC) program, which established most favored
nation (MFN) tariffs of zero or 5 percent for many categories of
industrial inputs, thereby eroding the value of NAFTA duty-free
entry for U.S. suppliers.
As a result of the slowdown of the U.S. consumer electronics
market, Mexican imports of U.S. components for assembly and reexport
decreased significantly in 2002. This trend is expected to continue
in the near future until the U.S. economy recovers.
There are two main centers for the electronics industry
in Mexico—Baja California (Tijuana) and Guadalajara.
Baja California
Electronics is one of Baja California’s most
important industries, with 180 plants (approximately 26 percent
of Mexico’s total electronics maquiladoras). The great majority
of these plants are of Asian origin, and they employed more than
60,000 workers and produced nearly 19 million television sets and
computer monitors in 2002. Among the most important purchasers of
electronic components in the border region are Sony, Panasonic,
Thompson, Hitachi, JVC, Matsushita, Sia (Sanyo), Samsung, and Sharp.
This industry has been severely affected by the global economic
slowdown and other factors that have caused the closure and relocation
of more than 50 companies in the electronics sector. Nevertheless,
there have been recent signs of recovery, such as an important Japanese
firm inaugurating a new plant to manufacture plasma television sets.
The electronic products that continue to have the best prospects
are monolithic integrated circuits, hybrid integrated circuits,
circuit selectors, tuners, diodes, transistors, and electronic micro
assemblies. More than 35 percent of these components are imported
from Asian countries, a characteristic purchasing pattern from Asian
investors, who favor sourcing from their countries of origin.
As is happening in other parts of the country, the
electronics industry in the region is evolving, shifting production
lines to new products such as cellular phones, game consoles, and
automotive electronics, among others.
Guadalajara
Located in western Mexico, Guadalajara has experienced
important growth in the electronics sector and is considered Mexico’s
“Silicon Valley.” Original equipment manufacturers (OEMs)
that formed the initial base of the city’s electronics industry,
including Hewlett Packard, IBM, Siemens, and Kodak, are now contracting
out more of their production to local contract manufacturers (CMs)
such as Flextronics, Solectron, and Jabil Circuit to manufacture
parts for final products manufactured in Guadalajara—computers
(mainly laptops), computer peripherals (mainly printers), game consoles,
and telecommunication equipment. Texas Instruments and Siemens represent
the growing specialty sector within automotive electronics. New
practices being adopted by local industry include the ability to
respond to requests from customers (located mainly in the United
States) with very short lead times (usually 48 hours), and the custom
manufacture of complex devices such as servers or routers.
Guadalajara’s electronics sector is closely
tied to that of the United States: 80 percent of electronic components
are imported from the United States under NAFTA, and 91 percent
of local production is exported to the United States. Therefore,
the downturn in the U.S. economy and decrease in demand for electronic
products has impacted Mexico’s economy. Mexico’s highest-value
import category, the semiconductor sector, is increasingly shifting
in origin from the United States to Japan, Taiwan, Malaysia, Korea,
and Singapore. In just the last year, U.S. semiconductor imports
fell from US$4.3 billion to US$3.3 billion.
Manufacturers have become even more cost conscious
and are looking for additional ways to reduce costs. Some have moved
parts of their operations to lower-cost countries. As more and more
OEMs look to their contract manufacturers for low costs, CMs have
more freedom to choose suppliers and negotiate price, therefore
transferring electronic component supplier control to CMs.
Table 12: Electronic Components Imported from the
U.S. in 2002 (US $ Millions)
Table 13: Electronic Components Imported from the
U.S. to Mexico in 2002
Source: Banco de Mexico, Secretary of Economy, and
National Chamber of Electronics and Telecommunications. Figures
are considered from April 2002 to March 2003, due to a lack of information
from the Secretariat of Economy.
Mexico: Internet and E-Commerce
The Internet market is the fastest growing segment
within Mexico’s telecommunications sector. According to the
consulting firm Select, the number of Internet users reached approximately
10 million in 2002 and was expected to reach 12.25 million by the
end of 2003.
Internet penetration is limited by a low PC-penetration
rate and a lack of fixed-line capacity, which prevents potential
customers from gaining access. The installed base of PCs in 2002
was estimated at 8.1 million, of which 54 percent had Internet access.
The drivers for the Internet growth include the interest in fixed
broadband access, Internet/PC bundle packages offered by most service
providers, the popularity of Internet cafes, and the initiatives
of the government and carriers for increasing Internet adoption
by residential, business, educational, and government users.
The potential number of Mexican Internet users is
primarily limited by income distribution patterns, limited investment
in IT by SMEs, limited Internet content in Spanish, and the high
prices of fixed broadband connectivity. However, Wi-Fi solutions
are being looked at to overcome these limitations. Wi-Fi commercial
systems are in place in some restaurants, coffee shops, hotels,
and other commercial establishments, primarily in metropolitan and
tourist areas. Techtel International and Intel have been very active
in this regard. In addition, Telmex has installed 100 “hotspots”
in Sanborns, a chain of retail/pharmacy stores with coffee shops,
as well as in convention centers and airports.
According to Pyramid Research, the revenues generated
by Internet services grew from US$138 million in 1998 to US$535
million in 2001 and will continue to grow at an annual rate of 20
percent over the next five years. Currently, revenues from fixed
narrowband access account for 72 percent of the market, due to the
large number of dial-up connections. However, it is estimated that
broadband services will gradually gain market share and will generate
approximately 52 percent of Internet services revenues in 2007.
Over the long term, Internet use is expected to increase
as the process of technology diffusion continues, with computer/Internet
access moving from larger companies to their suppliers, from institutions
of higher education down to secondary and primary schools, and from
the Mexican federal government to local governments. Wireless Internet
use may become more widespread in the future as a result of the
serious infrastructure problems with the fixed-line Internet.
The relatively fast expansion of the Internet in Mexico,
growing interest in e-commerce, and the increasing use of business
applications are creating a need for hosting services with large
storage capabilities. Companies that are capable of offering bundled
packages for connectivity, hosting, and storage will eventually
displace companies currently offering simple colocation and basic
storage solutions for Web sites.
According to Pyramid Research, e-commerce in Mexico
is expected to reach approximately US$47 billion by 2005, up from
US$1.1 billion in 2001, making Mexico a leader in Latin America
in terms of potential for future growth in this area.
International trade in 2002 accounted for US$873 million
of e-commerce transactions and forms the largest component of the
US$1.5 billion in e-commerce revenues. Business-to-business (B2B)
is more prevalent than business-to-consumer (B2C) e-commerce. In
2002, B2B reached US$523 million, and B2C accounted for US$131 million.
The main issues affecting B2C e-commerce include low Internet penetration,
a low level of consumer purchasing power, a low penetration of credit
cards, an underdeveloped market for consumer credit, and IT education
and awareness.
Most signs indicate that B2B will continue to thrive
as increasing resources are invested in the development of online
supply chains by both the private sector and the government of Mexico.
B2B is projected to reach US$1.9 billion by 2005. This growth will
also result from declines in B2C transactions that are likely to
occur in both the short- and medium-term. However, as the Internet
penetration rate continues to grow, so will B2C in the long term.
Large companies and financial institutions are working
to change their procurement processes to electronic means. An A.T.
Kearney survey indicates that for this year, 27 percent of the IT
investment in Mexico will be for e-business solutions, compared
with 18 percent in 2002.
According to Mexico’s banking association and
Select, the number of registered e-banking clients rose from 700,000
in 2001 to 2.4 million in 2002. This number should reach 4.5 million
by 2005. Banking operations increased from US$96 million to US$280
million over the same period.
One the most promising developments related to Mexico’s
e-commerce future is the government of Mexico’s commitment
to making Mexico a digital economy. The development of the e-Mexico
program is the most obvious manifestation of this commitment. E-Mexico’s
main goals are to develop Mexico’s IT industry, foster an
internal market for IT products, promote an adequate regulatory
framework for the use of electronic media and e-commerce, and digitalize
government services in order to create a model for the private sector.
The e-Mexico initiative promotes the use of information technologies
in education, health, commerce, and government.
In July 2002, the Mexican government created a trust
fund to begin providing points of Internet access to more than 2,000
rural communities. Leaders of e-Mexico claim that by 2025, 98 percent
of Mexican citizens will be online. As of June 2003, the e-Mexico
project was clearly a reality. The majority of the 3,200 digital
community centers have been constructed, and a national satellite
network to provide connectivity is already launched and in operation.
These digital community centers have been installed in 2,429 municipalities
and 16 delegations within the Federal District (Mexico City).
Another positive development in this area is the work
that is being done on the e-commerce legal and regulatory framework.
Both the government and the private sector have been committed to
revamping laws that pertain to or affect e-commerce. In 2000, the
government of Mexico began this undertaking with the passage of
the e-Commerce Law. As a consequence, electronic contracts are recognized
legally, information transmitted online is accepted in judicial
proceedings, and consumer protection laws apply to the online world.
Last year, the Mexican government created a standard
(Norma Oficial Mexicana—NOM-151-scfi-2002) on conservation
of messages of data. Also, the Federal Law of Transparency and Access
to Government Public Information came into effect in June 2003.
This year, 2004, the Digital Signature Law was also approved.
While e-commerce legislation is gradually evolving,
a number of additional laws and regulations have been proposed to
make Mexico’s laws related to e-commerce “interoperable”
with other digital economies. Perhaps the most important is the
e-invoice legislation, which will eliminate the requirement that
businesses provide hard copies of invoices in electronic transactions.
Additional legislation related to consumer protection
and data privacy are pending in the Mexican Congress. Many companies
and financial institutions are concerned that the government’s
interest in passing laws related to data privacy could hinder the
transformation of Mexico into a digital society. It is widely felt
that B2B and B2C e-commerce in Mexico will be advanced only to the
extent to which proponents of the free flow of information and a
self-regulatory approach prevail on these issues. On June 6, 2003,
the Mexican Congress passed the flawed data privacy legislation,
which would negatively impact Mexican, U.S., and other foreign business
interests. This legislation is being monitored closely by the U.S.
Government.
Table 14: Mexican Internet and E-Commerce Revenues
Table 15: Mexican Computers
Source: Select Mexico
Turkey (Turkey, 2004)
Turkey: Telecommunications Services
In 2004, full liberalization of the market will increase
the size of the market. The private sector has obtained and will
obtain licenses for the introduction of new telecommunications services
in competition with Turk Telekom. The competition will create more
business, for both the private sector and Turk Telekom.
Turk Telekom is the main fixed-line telecommunications
operator, with a subscriber number exceeding 19 million. The government
of Turkey, in privatizing Turk Telekom, is considering the sale
of some of Turk Telekom’s shares as bonds, convertible to
potential shares of Turk Telekom. The Turkish government will convert
these bonds into shares of company stock when the market conditions
are right.
Turkey has four cellular service operators, Turkcell,
Telsim, Aria, and Aycell. Turkcell has approximately 15 million
subscribers. Telsim’s subscriber estimate was 8 million by
the end of 2002. Aria has approximately 1 million subscribers. Aycell’s
subscriber estimate was 400,000 by the end of 2002. Turkcell and
Telsim operate on 900 MHz Global System for Mobile Communications
(GSM) systems. Aria and Aycell operate at 1800 MHz GSM frequency.
The government of Turkey may consider issuing third-generation GSM
licenses in 2004.
Best prospects for U.S. export and investment will
be voice and data transmission services through fiber optic networks
and voice over internet protocol (VoIP). High-speed data and leased-line
services have a promising future in Turkey. More than 40 private
sector companies have already obtained licenses. Additional opportunities
exist for the Turkish market in international traffic, either originating
or terminating in the country. Due to the widely dispersed Turkish
population around the world, a large number of international calls
are placed, primarily from Western Europe and the United States
to Turkey.
Turkey will play an important role in providing telecommunications
traffic access to Iraq. Satellites covering Turkey and Iraq can
be pivotal in the reconstruction of Iraq’s telecommunications
services sector. Networks in Turkey can tie Iraq to the Internet
world and participate in establishment of Internet backbones.
Table 16 shows the market size estimates for this
sector.
Table 16: Telecommunications Services in Turkey
Note: The statistics above are unofficial estimates
based on an exchange rate of $1 = TL 1,600,000.
Turkey: Telecommunications Equipment
The telecommunications industry will be liberalized
in 2004. The new investors will be the major equipment buyers alongside
Turk Telekom, Turkcell, Telsim, Aria, and Aycell. The existing telecommunications
laws specify that the telecommunications services sector was to
have full liberalization starting from January 1, 2004.
The private sector may make major investments on establishment
of new fiber-optic networks, VoIP equipment, and wireless local
loop networks. Depending on the timing of license tenders, the other
best prospect can be the third-generation GSM networks. Due to the
proximity of Turkey to a liberated Iraq, Turkey can be a hub-market
for the telecommunications equipment needed in the Iraqi reconstruction
and improvement of the existing telecom network in Iraq.
Turk Telekom, being the incumbent fixed-line operator
with more than 19 million subscribers, may invest in new technologies
in 2004. Turk Telekom may consider procurement of an intelligent
network management center. Turk Telekom, together with Koc Holding,
can be a good client if their consortium wins the Bulgarian Telekom
privatization. Most probably Bulgarian Telecom networks will require
further digitalization. The four GSM cellular operators, Turkcell,
Telsim, Aria, and Aycell, may also further invest to improve their
networks and services in 2004.
Following is the market size estimates for this sector:
Table 17: Market Size for the Turkish Telecommunications
Equipment Sector
Note: The statistics above are unofficial estimates
based on an exchange rate of $1 = TL 1,600,000.
Turkey: Information Technology
The IT market in Turkey had been growing at an annual
rate of 25–30 percent since 1997. However, due to the economic
crises in 2001, this rate fell to 22 percent, with the total IT
market valued at US$2.8 billion (excluding telecommunications equipment
and services). The overall industry size, inclusive of telecommunications
equipment and services, reached US$9.6 billion in 2002. There are
now nearly 4 million Internet users in Turkey. IT hardware is the
leader in IT market sales, mainly driven by PC sales. Analysts estimated
inflation in Turkey to be 48.9 percent in 2002 and that Turkey can
realize a 5.3 percent actual growth rate between 2003 and 2006.
Market analysts anticipate a 30.9 percent market increase
as the Turkish economy continues its postcrises economic rebound.
The government of Turkey is in the final stages of
passing the E-Commerce Regulatory Law, which will enable official
legal acceptance of electronic signatures as well as regulate e-commerce
and tax issues. The proposed e-commerce law is based on the European
model with influence from U.S. regulations.
The best prospect subsectors remain as follows: PC
sales, data storage, digital photography, and generic printer cartridges.
Table 18 shows the market size estimate for the IT
sector, excluding telecommunications equipment and services.
Table 18: Turkey’s Information Technology Market
Note: The statistics above are unofficial estimates
based on an exchange rate of $1 = TL 1,600,000.
Section G: User Study
Introduction
The purpose of the user study was to document and
understand user experiences with the six product lines under study.
The experiences and thoughts of the consumer with a disability provide
important insight into the future design of accessible products
and potentially can influence the universal design process. Thus,
an extensive amount of data was collected during the user study
to gain a better understanding of how users with disabilities feel
about different products and accessibility features. Data on the
experiences of users with disabilities with products representative
of the six product lines was collected through focus groups, through
the administration of the Georgia Tech Universal Design Survey,
and through the Wireless Rehabilitation Engineering Research Center
(RERC) Survey.
Twenty individuals with disabilities participated
in the focus group study, including users with low vision, blindness,
upper-mobility impairments, lower-mobility impairments, hard of
hearing, and deafness. During the focus group discussion, users
discussed their experiences with ATMs, cellular phones, distance
learning software, PDAs, televisions, and voice recognition software.
Accessibility issues and features were discussed and prioritized
by the users. They also talked about which tasks associated with
each product line are the most difficult for them to complete; the
impact of UD on their desire to use products; and how the Federal
Government, manufacturers of products, and consumers can help promote
universal design.
The Georgia Tech Universal Design Survey was created
to gather information on the use and acceptance of accessibility
features of products from users with different types of vision,
hearing, and mobility disabilities. The survey was completed by
320 users with disabilities. Data gathered from this survey included
the users’ level of experience with each type of product,
the level of disability-related difficulty in using the device,
and the usefulness of a set of disability-specific features that
might be associated with the device.
Finally, the purpose of the Wireless RERC Survey was
to gather data on the use and acceptance of wireless technologies
among users with disabilities. A total of 625 users answered questions
regarding their perceived access to telecommunications devices,
importance of telecommunications devices, frequency of use, ease
of use, and reasons for not using the device. The data from the
two user surveys is summarized and discussed in terms of its implications
for universal design.
Analysis of Focus Group Data
The purpose of the focus groups was to understand
and document the experiences of people with disabilities with six
product lines. The six product lines are ATMs, cellular phones,
PDAs, distance learning software, televisions, and voice recognition
software. The focus group participants had the following disability
types: low vision, blindness, upper-mobility impairment, lower-mobility
impairment, hard of hearing, and deafness. This section describes
the participants and summarizes their experiences, in general, with
products marketed with UD or accessibility features. Following is
a discussion of each product line, broken down by disability type.
This discussion includes the users’ experiences with the product,
their perceptions of accessibility features and issues, and the
impact of accessibility on use. The report ends with a discussion
of government, industry, and consumer involvement that can promote
UD.
Methodology
The data for this report was collected through focus
group discussions. A total of five focus groups and one individual
interview were conducted. Each focus group contained individuals
with a particular disability type. The focus groups were separated
by disability type to give us the opportunity to focus on issues
pertaining to a given user group and to accommodate the needs of
particular users. If users with different disability types were
included in the same focus group, it would be more difficult to
isolate the issues specific to each disability type. The focus groups
were limited to no more than four individuals because of the amount
of material that was covered. Focus groups containing more than
four individuals would have likely required more than four hours
to complete. The duration of the focus groups was limited to four
hours for the comfort of the participants. Breaks were taken to
accommodate the needs of the individual participants.
Each focus group session began with an overview of
the purpose of the study. Participant were then asked to introduce
themselves to the group and briefly describe themselves. The focus
group then proceeded with a discussion of general experiences with
products marketed as having accessibility features. Each disability
group briefly touched on each of the product lines, but they did
not necessarily have an in-depth discussion of each product line.
Some disability groups tended to have little or no experience with
a particular product line (e.g., most people who are blind have
not used a PDA because PDAs are not accessible to them); therefore,
the discussion of that product was limited.
During the discussion of accessibility issues and
accessibility features, the participants were asked to identify
issues and features, and they were then asked to prioritize them
based on their perceived importance. A card-sorting technique was
used to record and prioritize the accessibility issues and features.
As each issue or feature was identified, the user wrote it on an
index card. When the user-supplied list of issues and features was
complete, the list was reviewed, and as a group, the participants
prioritized the items on the list. Two card sorting tasks were completed:
one for accessibility issues and one for accessibility features.
Description of Participants
A total of 20 participants were recruited to participate
in five separate focus groups, with four participants in each group.
A separate interview was conducted with an individual with multiple
impairments. Three of the individuals who responded to our requests
for participation did not participate as planned.
The low vision (LV) user focus group consisted of
three female participants. LV#1 has glaucoma, and started losing
her vision in her late 20s. She has no vision in her right eye and
is about 20/400 in her left eye. She has had corneal transplants
and multiple glaucoma surgeries. She uses a lighted magnifier as
an aid and a cane for mobility. LV#2 is legally blind in one eye
and completely blind in the other. She is unable to read standard
print. She uses Braille Note, Voice Mate, and Jaws technologies,
as well as a cane as a mobility aid. LV#3 has a low-vision disability.
She uses Zoom Text and a magnifier along with her glasses as aids,
as well as a cane for mobility.
The focus group of users who are blind (B) consisted
of two male and two female participants. B#1 is completely blind
and uses a cane as a mobility aid. She uses Braille Note, Voice
Mate, and Jaws technologies. B#2 has been visually impaired all
her life. Retinal tears and detachments led to complete blindness
11 years ago. She uses a cane for mobility and has used a guide
dog in the past. She reads Braille, uses Jaws, and will use any
other technologies if they are accessible. She likes speech output
in products. B#3 lost his sight as a result of an eye disease; he
is still able to see light contrast, and he uses a cane for mobility.
He can read Braille and uses Braille Light and Jaws technologies.
B#4 is completely blind and lost his sight as a result of glaucoma.
He uses a cane for mobility. He also uses Braille & Speak, but
he has not used Jaws.
The hard-of-hearing (HH) user focus group consisted
of one male and one female participant. HH#1 has had nerve deafness
since grade school. He wears analog hearing aids in both ears and
can participate in everyday conversation. HH#2 was born with some
hearing loss, but in the last year she has reached more than 90
percent loss. She has recently been fitted with digital hearing
aids.
The focus group of users who are deaf consisted of
one male and three female participants. Two of the four participants
could hear some sound but have no sound comprehension; they both
wore hearing aids. They all used some kind of pager or other text-messaging
technology.
The upper-mobility-impaired (UM) user focus group
consisted of one male and two female participants, all of whom happened
to have both upper- and lower-mobility impairments. UM#1 has a spinal
cord injury resulting in upper- and lower-extremity limitations.
He has no finger or thumb function and needs to extend his wrist
in order to grasp things. Elbow extension is difficult but not impossible.
He has no muscle control below the armpits. He uses a compact manual
wheelchair for mobility. He has used Dragon Dictate and Naturally
Speaking, but he finds them cumbersome. He uses a Kensington track
ball and a U-cuff while performing his job. UM#2 has some paralysis
resulting in restricted strength and movement. She wears a leg brace.
UM#3 had polio as a child and has lost strength in her arms and
legs, with very limited reach. She uses a power wheelchair.
One additional participant with multiple disabilities
was interviewed on an individual basis. His impairments resulted
from malformed blood vessels in the brain that have hemorrhaged
at various times in his life. He is 90–95 percent paralyzed
in his left arm and hand and 70–75 percent paralyzed in his
left leg; he walks with a cane. He also has 70 percent hearing loss
in one ear and 30 percent in the other ear; he frequently wears
hearing aids. He is blind in one eye and has 20/400 vision in the
other.
Experiences with Consumer Products
Users reported positive and negative experiences with
products marketed with UD or accessibility features, and some identified
products they found useful that were not originally designed with
accessibility in mind. In addition, users identified some accessibility
features that they recognized as having a benefit for the larger
population. The telephone is considered to be the most universally
accessible device because it allows access to a large number of
systems and services.
Some appliances come with Braille overlays, which
are very helpful, but they are not available for all models.
More and more technology is trending toward flat panel
or membrane displays, which are inaccessible to people who are blind
and people with low vision without an aid such as a Braille overlay.
However, some overlays have bad adhesive and only last a short time.
Most visually impaired consumers will make their own Braille labels
if the manufacturer does not provide them. Another alternative to
Braille labels is high mark pens.
For the visually impaired, the trend toward flat panel
displays, including their use on swipe card machines for credit
or debit card transactions, means a loss of independence and security.
With raised button displays, visually impaired users
can generally manage a transaction without much assistance. With
a flat panel display, however, they cannot feel the controls to
input information such as a personal identification number, and
they must therefore give that information to a stranger in order
to complete a transaction. The United States Postal Service (USPS)
recently installed touchscreen-based credit and debit card devices
nationwide, which has greatly impacted the visually impaired community.
Flat panel displays are also being used increasingly on household
products such as stoves and washing machines, though purchase of
these products is resisted because of the lack of knobs. Elevators,
which have tactile buttons and Braille labeling, cause problems
for the visually impaired because there is no standardization of
the button placement or layout.
Most visually impaired users really benefit from automated
telephone systems, which allow them to complete transactions independently.
One participant had a VCR which could be set using
a telephone touchpad. Without the telephone interface, the VCR menus
were inaccessible to users who are blind and many with low vision.
The telephone interface made the VCR accessible to the visually
impaired.
Zenith developed a talking VCR; however, because it
does not voice everything, it does not help the visually impaired
as much as they would have hoped. Similarly, there is a Sony CD
player /clock radio/alarm that has some spoken features, but not
the complete set. Microsoft’s Windows XP has a feature to
enlarge the screen, but according to focus group participants this
feature is not available for all applications. People have had good
experiences with talking phones and talking caller identification
(caller-ID). There is no consensus on the usefulness of voice control,
but some users have commented that availability of voice control
would provide access to many more products. Another comment made
was that voice by itself is not enough to make a product accessible
to the visually impaired.
Most instruction manuals designed for users who are
blind are poorly written; they typically fail to explain all the
features and/or do not provide information in a logical fashion.
When purchases are made for items that claim to be
accessible but do not meet the expectation, consumers do not hesitate
to contact the manufacturer to make suggestions. The perception
is that companies are responsive to comments and that they are willing
to make changes to increase accessibility, which will, in turn,
increase demand. However, consumers are unsure whom to contact within
a company in order to have the greatest impact.
There is a general perception that many older products,
including older cell phone models, were more accessible than the
newer ones.
Older devices tended to have simpler designs, and
these simpler designs tend to be the most accessible. The vast majority
of products do not address the needs of individuals with significant
disabilities. Trends in marketing and technology seem to run counter
to accessibility. For example, the miniaturization of cellular phones
has impacted users with upper-mobility impairments as well as users
with visual impairments.
Many products marketed as accessible are priced two
times as much or more than the nonaccessible consumer equivalent,
and many people with disabilities are unwilling or unable to purchase
these products because of the cost.
Consumers need to weigh the usefulness of the device
versus the cost, particularly those who live on the limited income
typical of people with disabilities. The perception is that many
companies that market products as accessible come to feel that there
is no market for them, and subsequently remove them from the market
because of a perceived lack of interest. However, in reality the
reason for low sales is the cost. Radio Shack has greatly reduced
the price of its talking watches because it hopes to develop a wider
appeal to individuals who find them to be clever devices. People
tend to be willing to pay the extra cost for products that they
consider essential for day-to-day activities. The Voice Mate, for
example, costs about $300, but it is perceived as worth the cost
because of the positive impact it can have in a user’s day-to-day
life.
Consumers are frustrated that they need to pay so
much more for comparable products designed with the disability community
in mind. There is also a lot of frustration in having to spend money
on a number of features that cannot be used because of a disability,
including many of the features that are available on a cell phone.
Moreover, people are hesitant to spend money on technologies that
are going to change in a year or two. There is a perception that
research that goes into the production of some accessible products
comes from government funding, and users feel that some of the savings
should be passed on to the consumer.
One hard-of-hearing user purchased a phone designed
specifically for increasing clarity. Although the device cost more
than the average phone, it lasted for only two or three years, while
the average phone lasts for at least four to five years.
All of participants who are deaf used some kind of
pager or text-messaging service. The Sidekick offers the basic functionality
of a PDA and Internet relay service, as well as cellular service,
which is perceived as critical for emergency situations, even though
the user who is deaf cannot use the service when alone. The participants
who are deaf have all had positive experiences with computer software
that has replaced the need for a specialized TTY device. The computer
software provides better quality signal transmission, and there
are no long distance charges associated with its use.
In particular, upper-mobility impaired users simply
cannot use some products, depending on how they are designed. They
will not purchase products that they cannot use. As a result, when
making a new purchase, these users look for products that are accessible
to them. They also tend to be creative in using objects designed
for one purpose to facilitate a very different need. As an example,
one person has very limited reach capability and cannot access food
in the back of her refrigerator; to compensate for this impairment
she placed a lazy Susan in her refrigerator to increase her access.
Many objects and devices like this can be used in a manner other
than what was intended by the designer in order to compensate for
an inability of the user to perform some task.
User Experiences for People with Low Vision
This section discusses low-vision users’ experiences
with ATMs, cell phones, PDAs, distance learning, televisions, and
voice recognition software. Discussion revolved around general experiences,
identification and prioritization of accessibility issues and features,
difficulty level experienced in performing some specific tasks,
and how more accessible designs would alter usage patterns. In the
case of the prioritization tasks for this group, it is important
to note that the order was often determined not by the desirability
of a particular feature, for example, but by the sequence of activities
required to use a device. For example, a person must be able to
use a remote control in order to manipulate on-screen menus, so
an accessible remote was rated more important than voiced on-screen
menus, even though the on-screen menus were actually the more desired
feature. Experience with distance learning and voice recognition
was very limited, and this discussion was not as extensive as for
the other product lines. The following sections summarize the user
inputs.
ATM
In general, users with low vision reported difficulty
using ATMs, primarily because of an inability to read the screen,
along with the difficulties experienced due to the varying nature
of screens across ATMs and banking institutions. In addition, users
voiced concerns with security and privacy.
User Experiences. General experiences using ATMs for
people with low vision include concerns about loss of control, independence,
and privacy. People are concerned about their safety and the security
of their bank funds. Even if accessibility issues were resolved,
the participants noted that they would still be reluctant to use
an ATM without assistance. Some individuals need assistance retrieving
money from the ATM, but they are hesitant to give out their personal
identification number (PIN) to get the assistance they need. One
individual prefers to get cash back at the grocery store by writing
a check for an amount in excess of the balance or through a debit
transaction using a checkout-line credit card terminal. People have
difficulties because the button locations differ with different
machines, and the alignment of the buttons with the screen options
is poor. Typically they do not experience problems using the keypad.
Accessibility Issues. Accessibility issues of ATMs,
as identified by users with low vision, are listed in their perceived
order of importance:
1. Inability to read the screen
2. Inability to identify the function of the buttons
3. Inability to define and distinguish the slots (i.e.,
for the ATM card, the receipt, and the envelope)
4. Poor alignment of the screen options with the buttons
5. Inability to read the receipt because the print
is too small or too faint
6. Difficulty in filling out the envelope for a deposit
transaction
Accessibility Features. Accessibility features of
ATMs, as identified by users with low vision, are listed in their
perceived order of importance:
1. Speech output
2. Larger font on the screen
3. Larger key labels
4. Availability of a machine-generated deposit slip
(replacing the need to fill in an envelope to support the transaction)
5. Remote set-up of the next transaction through a
computer, cell phone, or PDA
Task Assessments. In a discussion of specific tasks
associated with ATM use, the low-vision user focus group generally
indicated that they had few problems locating the ATM, inserting
the bank card, remembering and entering a PIN, and retrieving the
receipt or bank card. All participants reported that they cannot
see the screen to make a cash withdrawal or deposit, or to check
their account balance, without assistance.
Impact of UD. If ATMs were completely accessible,
users with low vision would still have safety concerns when using
an ATM completely independently and would still have difficulty
getting to an ATM. Specific comments are listed below.
- “It would make no difference in how
I use it now.”
- “It would make a substantial difference
in my life. I wouldn’t need to worry about banking hours,
and I could do a banking transaction much more quickly.”
- “I would use it more because I would
have more independence and control, as well as increased privacy.”
Analysis. Based on the user input summarized above,
improvement of accessibility of ATMs needs to consider the entire
user experience rather than just the technological solutions. The
ATM could be completely accessible in terms of a person’s
ability to interact with it, but users may still feel it is inaccessible
because of social or environmental factors.
Cell Phone
In general, users with low vision have difficulty
using cell phones, and they are able to use them for little more
than to make and receive calls. They have difficulty with the keypad,
even with the raised dot on the “5” key.
User Experiences. Experiences with cell phones for
people with low vision are generally poor; they are not able to
do much beyond dialing and receiving calls. The keypad is the most
important feature for this population, and it is becoming more and
more inaccessible as designers emphasize appeal over function. Not
all phones have a raised dot (nib) on the “5” key, and
many that do have it place the dot in a difficult-to-feel position
or do not raise it enough. Even with the nib on the “5”
key, the trend is toward more smooth, rather than raised, buttons,
which are difficult for people with low vision to use because they
cannot differentiate the buttons tactilely. Voice dialing can be
helpful, but users need assistance to set it up.
On-screen menus are inaccessible to users with low
vision. All on-screen menus are based on a visual representation
of the options, which is difficult or impossible for users with
low vision to read or interpret.
One individual feels that the cell phone is the least
accessible of all consumer products, and that older phones were
a lot more accessible than the newer designs.
Accessibility Issues. Accessibility issues of cell
phones, as identified by users with low vision, are listed in their
perceived order of importance:
1. Nonstandard keypad layout
2. Keys that are too small
3. Inaccessible menus
4. Inaccessible caller-ID
5. Inaccessible status indicators
6. Inaccessible text messaging
Accessibility Features. Accessibility features of
cell phones, as identified by users with low vision, are listed
in their perceived order of importance:
1. Voiced menus
2. Changeable faces for availability of standard keypad
3. Talking caller-ID
4. Voice dialing
Task Assessments. In a discussion of specific tasks
associated with cell phone use, the low-vision users focus group
generally indicated that they have no problems turning the phone
on and off, dialing numbers on the keypad, receiving a phone call
(facilitated for one individual by the background lighting on the
keys), accessing voice mail, attaching a headset, or charging the
phone. The locking/unlocking feature is perceived as a nuisance
because there is no way to tell which state the phone is in, and
if the phone is accidentally locked, they do not necessarily know
how to unlock it. Storing a phone number is difficult or impossible
because the menus are inaccessible. Some are able to recall a stored
phone number with the use of a magnifying glass, and this task would
be facilitated by voice output. One participant has problems at
times because of difficulties with the voice recognition capability,
particularly if she is sick or the environment is noisy. Caller-ID
is completely inaccessible, as is text messaging and the signal
strength indicator. Battery strength can be determined only if the
phone beeps to indicate that it is low, but this typically happens
too close to the time when the phone is about to be completely discharged.
Impact of UD. If cell phones were completely accessible,
users with low vision would use more of the features, like text
messaging and the Internet. They would get more for what they pay
for, and they would be much more efficient because of the ability
to multitask when they are on the go.
Analysis. All users should have a choice of phones,
but they should not be required to pay for numerous features that
they cannot use. Until advanced features can be made more accessible,
cell phones with reduced feature sets should be available, and the
available features should be as advanced as they are for other models.
A standard should be set for keypad layout and tactile quality of
the keypad so that a common component does not eliminate a choice
of a product because of its inaccessible implementation. Users with
limited sight can benefit from many of the advanced cell phone features
if those features are made accessible, and the end-users would greatly
appreciate the opportunity to use the advanced functionality.
PDA
Users with low vision were not able to report directly
on their experiences with PDAs because none has used one. They interacted
with some devices made available during the focus group, and they
identified the issues and features they perceived during that time.
User Experiences. None of the participants with low
vision has used a PDA, but all expressed that they would love to
be able to use one. One individual currently uses Braille Note,
which allows her to take notes during meetings, send and receive
email, and download books. Braille Note can also serve as a global
positioning system (GPS) and a screen-reader. It has speech output,
and documents can be ported to and from Microsoft Word. Braille
Note runs on the Windows CE operating system. However, the Braille
Note device should not be considered the equivalent of a PDA. None
of the software designed to run on mainstream PDAs will run on Braille
Note.
Accessibility Issues. Accessibility issues of PDAs,
as identified by users with low vision, are listed in their perceived
order of importance:
1. Inability to read the screen
2. Inaccessible touchscreen controls
3. Difficulty using a stylus in conjunction with a
magnifier
4. Small size and proximity of keyboard buttons
5. Small font size of labels
Accessibility Features. Accessibility features of
PDAs, as identified by users with low vision, are listed in their
perceived order of importance:
1. Speech output
2. User control of font size and ability to set font
size to at least 14 or 18 point
3. Numeric keypad for alphanumeric entry (like on
cell phones)
4. Compatibility with assistive technologies (ATs)
Impact of UD. If PDAs were completely accessible,
all users with low vision indicated that they would definitely use
one. One specifically indicated that it would increase her efficiency
and allow her to reduce the number of AT devices she uses.
Analysis. Focus group participants could not use the
PDAs primarily because of an inability to read the screen. It was
difficult for users to use ATs, such as a hand magnifier, while
holding the PDA and using a stylus. It was notable that very few
accessibility issues were identified with the hardware of the PDA.
The vast majority of the accessibility issues were due to a lack
of accessibility features built into the operating system and the
lack of AT software that could be used with the device. The developers
of PDA operating systems should build basic accessibility features,
such as screen magnifiers and support for screen-readers, directly
into the software. Manufacturers of the hardware devices and developers
of PDA operating systems should encourage AT software developers
to develop software for the PDA platform.
Distance Learning Software
No participants had any experience with distance learning.
The group briefly discussed the ability to perform some tasks associated
with distance learning, but they were not knowledgeable enough to
identify accessibility issues and features.
Task Assessments. In a discussion of specific tasks
associated with distance learning use, the low-vision users focus
group expressed few problems. All can read email. Attachments generally
do not cause problems, though Zoom Text does not process graphics
well. One individual noted that Adobe Acrobat Reader 6.0 has worked
out many of the accessibility issues, and Adobe has worked very
closely with the makers of Jaws. The problem with Adobe Portable
Document Format (PDF) is the dependency on the authors of pages
to use the appropriate code and syntax to ensure compatibility with
AT. Only one individual uses instant messaging software. It has
the capability to increase the font size, and she can use it without
the use of Zoom Text. The others do not use instant messaging, but
not because of accessibility issues. The people in this group have
had little experience with chat software.
Impact of UD. If distance learning software were completely
accessible, all users with low vision indicated that they would
definitely be interested in taking more classes online, and they
feel it would really facilitate progress on graduate or professional
programs. One person indicated that it would improve the experience,
but it would not change her behavior.
Analysis. The providers of distance learning software
have done a good job of making the base software accessible. It
is, in part, the makers of the software designed to be used as part
of the distance learning package that need to concentrate their
efforts on the user experience for those who have disabilities.
Distance learning companies need to encourage the other software
developers to consider the needs of people with disabilities. Despite
technological improvements to increase UD, content providers may
not develop accessible content. One method of resolving this issue
might be for distance learning providers to develop a mechanism
for performing accessibility checks once course content has been
added to the system. If the software required an accessibility check
and accessibility enhancements before publication of the course
content, accessibility could be increased considerably.
Television
All users had experience with basic television use.
User Experiences. General experiences with television
for low vision users are that the device is easy to use once they
become familiar with the remote control and that audio description
is very useful, but not readily available. Some satellite and cable
providers do have audio description on certain channels on certain
days. The ability to turn audio description on and off should be
easily accessible through a dedicated button on the remote.
Accessibility Issues. Accessibility
issues of televisions, as identified by users with low vision, are
listed in their perceived order of importance:
1. Inaccessible visual content
2. Inaccessible remote controls, resulting, in part,
from a lack of standardization in laying out the buttons and features
3. Inaccessible on-screen menus
4. Difficulty controlling accessibility features (e.g.,
turning descriptive audio on and off)
Accessibility Features. Accessibility
features of televisions, as identified by users with low vision,
are listed in their perceived order of importance:
1. Talking remote controls
2. Audio description of content
3. Voiced on-screen menus
4. Voiced program guide
5. Voice recognition for the remote control
Dedicated control of accessibility features
Impact of UD. If televisions
were completely accessible, the users with low vision felt that
it would enhance the experience and that the television would be
easier to use, but it would not necessarily change their usage patterns.
One user said she would probably listen more if audio description
were available. Another said it would reduce the amount of talking
that disrupts the show when she needs to ask others what is happening.
Analysis. The greatest challenge
to benefiting from television for low vision users is the lack of
accessible visual information. Alternative output via audio and/or
large text is necessary for this population to manipulate controls,
adjust settings, and access on-screen content. An alternative would
be to make this information accessible through a screen-reader.
Service providers need to make their program guides and other on-screen
displays (like displays for pay-per-view) available in alternate
formats. Content providers can also improve their services by providing
audio description of content.
Voice Recognition
None of the users with low vision has had experience
with voice recognition software other than through automated telephone
attendants.
User Experiences. Some users
reported difficulties associated with the voice recognition accuracy
of automated voice attendants. Users prefer to have the option to
enter information through the keypad. This prevents them from having
to make multiple attempts at voice input and, more important, it
increases their privacy. Users are very concerned about being required
to use their voice to enter personal information.
User Experiences for People Who Are Blind
This section discusses the experiences of users who
are blind with ATMs, cell phones, PDAs, distance learning, televisions,
and voice recognition software. Discussion revolved around general
experiences, identification and prioritization of accessibility
issues and features, difficulty level experienced in performing
some specific tasks, and how more accessible designs would alter
usage patterns. In the case of the prioritization tasks for this
group, it is important to note that the order was often determined
not by the desirability of a particular feature, for example, but
by the sequence of activities required to use a device. For example,
a person must be able to use a remote control in order to manipulate
on-screen menus, so an accessible remote was rated more highly than
voiced on-screen menus, even though the on-screen menus were actually
the more desired feature. Users had no experience with distance
learning, so this was discussed only briefly. Experience with voice
recognition was very limited, and the discussion was not as extensive
as for some of the other product lines. The following sections summarize
the user inputs.
ATM
In general, users who are blind find it extremely
difficult to use ATMs without assistance. Some are comfortable using
a single ATM at a single location, as long as the software is not
upgraded (consequently altering the menu options). Limited Braille
is useful for providing orientation information. Many users would
appreciate a customized interface to accommodate their limited transaction
needs.
User Experiences. The general
experience using ATMs for people who are blind is that the machines
cannot be used without assistance. Many people are not comfortable
using the ATM without a friend or family member because they are
concerned about their safety. In contrast, one of the participants
reported being very comfortable using ATMs. One of the primary difficulties
for the unsighted is that the user cannot feel which buttons represent
which menu options. In addition, privacy is a concern with talking
ATMs, particularly if headphones are not available. For those who
have not experienced a talking ATM, there is some hesitancy to take
the time to try to learn how to use it, because other patrons waiting
to use the ATM get impatient.
ATM users who are blind sometimes have to trust a
friend or family member with their PIN, and some users have had
experiences with that person stealing money from the account. Experience
has shown that banks are not always sympathetic to these circumstances
and will argue that the person put him or herself in the situation
by giving out the PIN. As for all banking customers, limited evening
and weekend banking hours increase the need to access ATMs. One
person puts Braille on all of her credit and ATM cards to distinguish
them, and even puts her PIN in Braille on her ATM card. It is not
uncommon for visually impaired users to use the drive-up ATM with
a friend or family member, or when in a cab; this option somewhat
increases the perceived sense of safety.
Braille is very helpful to have on the device, but
it does not help the user to know what is on the display. One individual
commented that he found it odd that Braille is included on all of
the number keys. Once the “5” key is identified, which
can be facilitated through use of a tactile indicator (also important
on the “J” and the “F” of a standard keyboard),
the other numbers are easily identified, as long as the standard
telephone keypad layout is used. The addition of Braille on buttons
like “Cancel” has been very helpful for unsighted individuals.
Not all bank ATM screens are sequenced the same, which makes it
difficult for individuals who are blind to use just any available
ATM without assistance. Even within a given banking institution,
the menu sequences and button locations differ.
People who are blind are unable to read the ATM receipt.
Because they also cannot differentiate the funds received from the
ATM, they make withdrawals in multiples of $20 so that they do not
need to worry about bill denominations. One participant mentioned
becoming frustrated by not being able to make a simple transaction
without being slowed down by advertisements or a number of extra
options that are not relevant to him. Everyone agreed that ATMs
give the user too much information. One participant indicated that
he has often assisted sighted people through transactions because
of accessibility issues that impact the larger population.
Accessibility Issues. Accessibility
issues of ATMs, as identified by users who are blind, are listed
in their perceived order of importance:
1. Inability to access the screen without a headset
2. Lack of tactile controls (i.e., raised keys)
3. Inconsistent sequence of information on the screens
4. Inconsistent feel of button layout, card entry
location, method of inserting card, etc.
5. Inconsistent location of ATM at various facilities
6. Inability to read a printed receipt or statement
7. Inability to verify the amount of money given during
a withdrawal transaction
Note that the last two items were tied for importance.
Accessibility Features. Accessibility
features of ATMs, as identified by users who are blind, are listed
in their perceived order of importance:
1. Remote set-up of the next transaction through a
computer, cell phone, or PDA
2. Customized menus associated with the insertion
of an ATM card
3. Tactile indicators (e.g., shape, raised letters,
Braille) to differentiate the slots for the ATM card, the money,
and the deposit envelope
4. Voice output to identify button functions with
a press to confirm capability
5. Adjustable timeouts
Task Assessments. In a discussion
of specific tasks associated with ATM use, the participant group
of users who are blind generally indicated that they had few problems.
One individual switched to a bank that has a greater number of ATMs
available. Another uses telephone customer service to find ATM locations
if she is going to be in an unfamiliar area. However, she has difficulty
narrowing down the closest ATM because the representative may not
be in Atlanta or may be unfamiliar with a particular area and thus
cannot be specific enough about the closest location.
Users do not experience difficulty inserting the bank
card once the correct orientation is determined. There are no difficulties
remembering PINs. Two difficulties with cash withdrawals include
changes to the menus and some problem with the money getting jammed
and the slot closing too quickly. All participants check their balance
by phone rather than with the ATM, in part because they are unable
to read the transaction receipt. There are no problems retrieving
receipts or bank cards.
Impact of UD. If ATMs were
completely accessible, users who are blind would still have safety
concerns when using an ATM completely independently and would still
have difficulty getting to an ATM. Despite these issues, there was
a consensus that they would use ATMs more often if they were made
more accessible. Specific comments are listed below.
- “Would probably use it a bit more than
am using it now.”
- “I would have more freedom, and could
make a choice to use it more.”
- “I would never go inside a bank again.”
- “I wouldn’t have to strategize
and plan it out so much.”
Analysis. As with low-vision
users, improvement of accessibility of ATMs needs to consider the
entire user experience rather than just the technological solutions.
The ATM could be completely accessible in terms of a person’s
ability to interact with it, but users may still feel it is inaccessible
because of social or environmental factors. At a minimum, within
a banking institution, the screen displays and options should be
standardized to give users who are blind more freedom to access
their accounts at different locations.
Cell Phone
In general, users who are blind are frustrated by
the amount of money they must pay for a number of cell phone features
that they cannot benefit from because of the inaccessibility of
those features. This population is fairly comfortable with dialing
the phone and receiving calls but is unable to use a cell phone
for much else.
User Experiences. General
experiences using cell phones for people without sight are fairly
positive despite the inability to use most features. Participants
indicated that they have familiarized themselves with the keypad,
but would like greater ease of use in the design for features like
changing the ring tone and switching from ring to vibrate. Raised
buttons that are straight and aligned are very helpful for all users,
as are the tactile indicators on the “5” key. One individual
uses an earpiece, which he finds invaluable. People become frustrated
when they upgrade to a new phone and lose some features that they
found useful, or when they try to switch to a new service provider
and find the phone they are familiar with is not compatible with
the new service. No-frills phones are easiest for unsighted individuals
to handle. Many phones now have recessed buttons, and there are
some on which the “2” and “5” share the
same button; these designs are problematic for the unsighted. Menu
access is impossible for unsighted users. One individual unknowingly
turned the volume down very low on her cell phone and consistently
missed incoming calls because she could not hear the phone ringing.
On-screen menus are inaccessible to users who are
blind. All on-screen menus are based on a visual representation
of the options, which is impossible for users who are blind to read.
Some phones provide a numeric equivalent for menu functions that
provides an alternative means of providing input, but this feature
is not available on all phones and sometimes differs between phones.
The other problem with these phones is that the user must get assistance
in becoming familiar with those numeric equivalents. One individual
has a feature called voice command, which stores contact information
in a Web-based address book. Because the numbers can be stored through
a Web site, the task can be accomplished with the use of a screen-reader.
A simple key command and voicing the name of the person to call
retrieves the stored information.
Accessibility Issues. Accessibility
issues of cell phones, as identified by users who are blind, are
listed in their perceived order of importance:
1. Lack of tactile distinction of keys
2. Inaccessible menus
3. Lack of voiced caller-ID
4. Inaccessible status messages
Accessibility Features. Accessibility
features of cell phones, as identified by users who are blind, are
listed in their perceived order of importance:
1. Adequately sized keys, with a standard for the
minimum size
2. Voiced menus
3. Auditory status indicators
4. Easy way to set the phone to ring or vibrate
5. Voice dialing
6. Nib on the “5” key
Task Assessments. In a discussion
of specific tasks associated with cell phone use, the focus group
of users who are blind identified a number of problems. Although
actually turning the phone on and off presents no difficulties,
there are problems determining which state the phone is in. There
is a desire for some way to distinguish by sound when the power
button is pressed to know whether it has been switched on or off.
One individual suggested even having a physical state to distinguish
the status (e.g., the button is pressed in when ON and raised more
when OFF). There were multiple suggestions for isolating the power
button from the other buttons on the phone, and another suggestion
that the location be more standardized.
Only one participant uses the locking feature and
has no problems with it. There are no difficulties in dialing the
numbers on the keypad as long as a sufficient tactile indicator
is available on the “5” key, the keys are arranged in
the standard layout, and the numeric buttons are distinct enough.
A phone number cannot be stored without assistance. There is no
difficulty actually receiving a phone call, though one individual
commented that he cannot know whether he wants to answer because
the caller-ID information is inaccessible. Not everyone uses voice
mail, but one individual who does use it has accidentally hit the
“3” key, deleting his message without having first listened
to it. There are no problems attaching the headset or power supply.
Status indicators are inaccessible, but users adjust by making it
a habit to charge their phone regularly. Text messages are inaccessible.
Impact of UD. If cell phones
were completely accessible, users who are blind would use them much
more often. They would appreciate the opportunity to use more of
the features, and they feel their productivity would increase greatly.
Pay phones are becoming fewer and fewer, and the cell phone is the
best alternative.
Analysis. All users should
have a choice of phones, but they should not be required to pay
for numerous features that they cannot use. Until advanced features
can be made more accessible, cell phones with reduced feature sets
should be available, and the available features should be as advanced
as they are for other models. A standard should be set for keypad
layout and tactile quality of the keypad so that a common component
does not eliminate a choice of a product because of its inaccessible
implementation. Users with no sight can benefit from many of the
advanced cell phone features if those features are made accessible,
and the end-users would greatly appreciate the opportunity to use
the advanced functionality.
PDA
User Experiences. People who are blind are unable
to use Palm or Pocket PC-based PDAs, and they typically have never
tried. A typical computer is used to help keep up with appointments
and contacts, but it is not a portable alternative.
Analysis. Users who are blind are not likely to utilize
PDAs until significant advances in the accessibility of the operating
system and core applications have been made. Users who are blind
require an alternative method of interacting with the software.
Two changes must be implemented before PDAs can become accessible
to people who are blind. First, programs must be designed to support
the five-way navigation feature found on some PDAs or other keyboard-based
navigation schemes. Currently, many programs designed for PalmOne’s
Treo 600 smart phone can be utilized simply by moving the cursor
around and selecting the desired option, using the five-way navigation
button. These applications, designed for one-handed operation, can
also benefit people who are blind. Second, AT companies must develop
software to facilitate nonvisual operation of the PDA. In addition,
the operating system software of the PDA must support the use of
screen-reader applications.
Distance Learning
No participants had any experience with distance learning
software. The group briefly discussed the ability to perform some
tasks associated with distance learning, but they were not experienced
enough to identify accessibility issues and features.
User Experiences. Documents in Adobe Acrobat format
are problematic for the visually impaired, and there is a lack of
understanding of why a text document cannot just be made available
in a text format that is easily read by a screen-reader.
Task Assessments. In a discussion of specific tasks
associated with distance learning use, the focus group of users
who are blind identified a few problems. Email is generally accessible,
except for graphics and some attachments. Instant messaging is not
used because it is very irritating to use with a screen-reader,
due to the pop-ups that may occur and the simultaneous incoming
and outgoing displays. Embedded graphics can cause problems in Word
documents, but these are generally not problematic when read with
a screen-reader. Jaws is good at running PowerPoint presentations,
but it gives access only to text; graphics are inaccessible, and
sound and animation are problematic. Experiences with the use of
chat software have been mixed; the greatest problem with chat software
is the initial configuration.
Impact of UD. All participants who are blind said
they would definitely use distance learning and computer-based training
if it were fully accessible. It would help to be able to have electronic
copies of all the handouts that are given out during a class.
Analysis. The providers of distance learning themselves
have done a good job of making the base software accessible. It
is, in part, the responsibility of the makers of software that is
designed to be used as part of the distance learning package to
concentrate their efforts on the user experience for those who have
disabilities. Distance learning companies need to encourage the
other software developers to consider the needs of people with disabilities.
Despite technological improvements to increase UD, content providers
may not develop accessible content. One method of resolving this
issue might be for distance learning providers to develop a mechanism
for performing accessibility checks once course content has been
added to the system. If the software required an accessibility check
and accessibility enhancements before publication of course content,
accessibility could be increased considerably.
Television
All users had experience with basic television use.
User Experiences. Unsighted individuals enjoy hearing
television as much as sighted individuals enjoy watching it. Remote
controls have become complex devices, however, which limits users’
ability to control the television. Remotes have multiple sections
of buttons that are difficult to use and keep track of. When the
buttons are laid out well, they can be learned easily with some
assistance. Remote control devices rarely come with instructions,
and if instructions were provided that explained the button layout
and described some of the features, individuals who are blind would
benefit greatly. Emergency and other information crawlers that move
across the bottom of the television screen are completely inaccessible
to users who are blind. Programming often says to “call the
number on the screen,” but the number is not vocalized, making
it impossible for users who are blind to call if they are interested
in information or a product. Newscasts sometimes do descriptions
for users who are deaf, but they do not seem to be aware of the
population of users who are blind. In addition, remote control devices
are easily lost; without buttons, particularly raised buttons, on
the television set itself, the user who is blind is unable to control
the television.
Some individuals have had experience with audio description.
They generally feel it is a benefit, though sometimes it describes
situations unnecessarily, like a door slamming. Audio description
does not need to describe situations that are common life experiences
if the sound is provided for the action. One respondent indicated
that his television has an automatic second audio programming option
that does not require the user to turn the feature on and off.
Television features like programming guides and on-demand
services are not accessible to users who are blind. Online television
listings do not always give movie or show descriptions, which can
be frustrating to the user. Satellite and cable companies do not
always have available accessible versions of the channel guide.
One individual uses high mark on her remote control for commonly
used features.
Accessibility Issues. Accessibility issues of televisions,
as identified by users who are blind, are listed in their perceived
order of importance:
1. Difficulty in using the remote control
2. Inability to access on-screen program guides
3. Inability to access on-screen menus
4. Difficulty finding buttons on the television itself
5. Unavailability of audio description
Accessibility Features. Accessibility features of
televisions, as identified by users who are blind, are listed in
their perceived order of importance:
1. Talking remote control
2. Voiced program guide
3. Voiced television status (e.g., what channel is
currently set)
4. Voiced menus
5. Audio description
6. Easy way to turn accessibility features on and
off
Impact of UD. If televisions were completely accessible,
most users said they would watch it a lot more often. It would certainly
increase the ease of watching.
Analysis. The greatest challenge to benefiting from
television for users who are blind is the lack of information provided
in a format other than visual. Alternative output via audio is necessary
for this population to manipulate controls, adjust settings, and
access on-screen content. Another alternative would be to make this
information accessible through a screen-reader. Service providers
need to make their program guides and other on-screen displays (like
displays for pay-per-view) available in alternate formats. Content
providers can also improve their service by providing audio description
of content.
Voice Recognition
User Experiences. Most participants indicated that
they use telephone attendants quite frequently, and they find them
pretty user friendly and understandable, though a bit slow. There
have been some challenges with properly understanding voice input.
Users generally prefer human interaction or the ability to input
information through the keypad. None of the participants has had
experience with voice technologies built into products; the perception
is that these technologies would be more useful for the population
with upper-mobility impairments than the population of people who
are blind.
One individual commented on the inaccessibility of
programs like ViaVoice and Dragon Dictate. His experience is that
a user must read a story to set up the program to recognize the
user’s voice; the story needs to be read in a limited time
period, and it cannot be viewed by a user who is blind. In addition,
when an input error is made, a list of corrections is provided,
but this list is not read to the user.
Analysis. Most users recognize the potential for voice
recognition software to streamline user input; however, the software
is rarely used because of lengthy software configuration requirements
and accuracy issues. Although the accuracy of voice recognition
software has improved greatly, most users feel that they can work
more efficiently using the keyboard for input. Users of limited-vocabulary
voice recognition applications, such as those found in voice-based
automatic telephone attendants, generally report positive experiences.
In order to be useful, the accuracy of natural-language voice recognition
systems must approach the accuracy of current limited-vocabulary
systems without requiring extensive training.
User Experiences for People Who Are Hard of Hearing
This section discusses hard-of-hearing users’
experiences with ATMs, cell phones, PDAs, distance learning, televisions,
and voice recognition software. Discussion revolved around general
experiences, identification and prioritization of accessibility
issues and features, difficulty level experienced in performing
some specific tasks, and how more accessible designs would alter
usage patterns. The discussion revolved primarily around cell phones
and televisions, as those are the devices participants had the most
experience with and the ones users who are deaf or hard of hearing
might have the most difficulty with. The following sections summarize
the user inputs.
ATM
User Experiences. In general, the users who are hard
of hearing have no difficulty with ATMs. One individual, however,
has experienced a talking ATM in which the screen displayed a talking
head rather than the text menu, and she had difficulty understanding
what was being asked of her. The tones that emanate from ATMs to
serve as a reminder to retrieve the ATM card, for example, are not
always accessible to this population.
Analysis. Users should have the choice of whether
to receive auditory output. If auditory output is provided, redundant
visual information should be available as well.
Cell Phone
User Experiences. Participants commented that it was
rare to find a cellular phone with enough amplification to be useful.
Participants stressed the importance of clarity over amplification.
Many amplification systems sacrifice clarity in order to achieve
amplification, resulting in highly distorted audio that is difficult
to perceive, even at high amplification. One participant has a product
for her car that amplifies the sound through an external speaker
that allows her to use her cellular phone while driving. Unfortunately,
the device has only one volume setting, and it can be uncomfortable
for others in the car when she uses it.
Participants commented that ringers are often not
loud enough to be useful. Often users rely on vibrating or visual
alerts to determine if someone is calling. One participant commented
that while his phone seems to provide a sufficiently amplified sound,
the ability to hear the other person clearly is dependent on network
conditions and the other person’s phone. Some calls come through
clear, and others sound muffled or distant.
It was also noted that there is little to no compatibility
of cell phones for people who have cochlear implants. In addition,
some cell phones used by others in close proximity cause uncomfortable
feedback for some people with hearing aids.
Participants expressed that the most important feature
in a cell phone is the ability for them to hear the conversation.
Other cell phone features are secondary. During the focus group,
each participant tried to use a loopset made available for this
study, but neither had any success with it.
Accessibility Issues. Accessibility issues of cell
phones, as identified by users who are hard of hearing, are listed
in their perceived order of importance:
1. Difficulty hearing or the inability to hear the
other person talking
2. Interference with hearing aids
3. Inability to detect the phone ringing
4. Lack of understanding by the sales force of features
and accessories to enhance the user experience for the hard of hearing
5. Lack of sufficient on-screen information (e.g.,
that the connection has been lost or terminated)
Accessibility Features. Accessibility features of
cell phones, as identified by users who are hard of hearing, are
listed in their perceived order of importance:
1. Adjustable volume control
2. High sound quality (clarity)
3. Hearing aid compatibility
4. Enhanced vibration or flashing as an alternative
to auditory alerts
5. On-screen displays of auditory information
6. Loopsets
Task Assessments. Both participants make a practice
of leaving their cell phone in the same location; if they left it
somewhere else, they might have difficulty locating it when they
are able to detect it ringing. One participant, in particular, has
difficulty with localization, particularly if the hearing aids are
set at different volumes or intensities. The only other difficulties
mentioned were some problems with clarity when retrieving voice
mail and the inability to use headsets, which create interference
or feedback.
Impact of UD. If cell phones were completely accessible,
participants felt they would really benefit. One individual noted
that it is stressful just knowing that the phone is ringing, because
the experience of using the telephone is so frustrating. Knowing
they could use a phone and hear clearly would give them the freedom
available to others in using a cell phone without stress or assistance.
One individual expressed concern, however, that an accessible phone
would not be affordable.
Analysis. The accessibility of cell phones for people
who are hard of hearing is mixed. Some models of cell phones provide
sufficient amplification for some users; however, finding the right
cellular phone can be difficult. Sales personnel often know very
little about the accessibility features of cellular phones and are
not able to advise users on how to select a phone to match their
functional capabilities. Users seldom are able to try using the
phone sufficiently before they are asked to commit to a contract.
Loopsets can potentially provide access to cellular phones; however,
loopsets are not compatible with all hearing aid types, and only
certain phones can be used with a loopset.
Amplification without controlling distortion is not
sufficient. Clarity of the audio signal is more important than amplification
for hard-of-hearing users. If too much distortion is introduced
during amplification, the audio signal is not usable. Cellular phone
manufacturers and developers of assistive devices should focus on
providing reduced distortion amplification for users who are hard
of hearing.
PDA
User Experiences. Only one participant had experience
with PDAs. The participant did not report any accessibility issues
with the use of the PDA. To help overcome her hearing impairments,
she was able to set up her device to have the screen change colors
to remind her of meetings or appointments. It was reported that
a vibrating alert feature would also be useful.
Distance Learning
User Experiences. Only one participant had experience
with distance learning software. The participant observed that the
text and audio were not synchronized when watching captioned video
for the course. The unsynchronized video was very distracting, and
it was difficult to follow course instructions. In some instances,
the video was not captioned and the participant had to rely on lip
reading. The participant reported great difficulty understanding
the instructor because of both the size and the clarity of the video
made available, as well as the instructor’s habit of often
turning away from the camera. The participant felt that she would
greatly benefit if synchronized text or closed captioning were provided
as an accompaniment to the auditory output.
Impact of UD. One participant would really like to
use distance learning more if the frustrations could be removed.
She feels that it is an excellent method of obtaining knowledge
at a fairly inexpensive cost. The second participant felt that he
would use distance learning if the topic were interesting and relevant
to his needs, but he would not benefit much, given his lifestyle
needs.
Analysis. The distance learning experience can be
greatly enhanced for the hard-of-hearing population through provision
of text equivalents of verbal content. These text equivalents can
be provided through electronic text or through closed captioning.
Television
Users reported considerable experience with use of
televisions and related technologies. All participants reported
enjoying watching television.
User Experiences. There is a tendency to either watch
the television with the volume turned very high, which is uncomfortable
for users without hearing impairments, or to turn the volume off
and watch with closed captioning turned on. Only one participant
had experience with high definition television (HDTV). She found
the sound and picture quality to be excellent, enhancing her ability
to both hear and read lips, even reducing the need to use closed
captioning. Users reported that availability of closed captioning
and picture clarity are the most important features to consider
when purchasing a new television, followed by good volume control.
A few problems with closed captioning that were mentioned
are that it is not available for all shows, and it occludes important
information like news tickers and sports scores. Both participants
noted that when problems with closed captioning do occur, they seem
to happen most often when critical information is being relayed.
Also, when there are transitions between shows, the closed captioning
is often truncated. When transmission errors cause a delay in closed
captioning, recovery methods differ. In some cases, the closed captioning
will be displayed so quickly it is difficult or impossible to keep
up while reading it, and in other cases it is way behind for the
remainder of the show. Other minor issues are that it is not always
easy to turn closed captioning on and off, and closed captioning
is not always available as specified by the program guide. While
spelling and other accuracy errors were noticed, they are not prohibitive
issues.
Users noted that frequently pay-per-view shows are
advertised as closed caption, but they are not captioned when purchased.
Some cable or satellite providers may be reluctant to refund the
cost of the pay-per-view movie or event based on the availability
of closed captioning.
Users were asked if they had a preferred closed captioning
format. One participant does not have a preference, stressing instead
the importance that closed captioning is available and that it works.
Another prefers the rolling format in which multiple lines of text
are displayed and the text moves up the screen. This provides a
brief opportunity to go back and review if something was missed.
Another person prefers the scan format, where text appears on the
screen as if being typed, but would like to be able to control the
speed; he has sight in only one eye and finds that he cannot always
keep up. The participant reported that he typically reads only every
other line when multi-line, block-format closed captioning is used.
Accessibility Issues. Accessibility issues of televisions,
as identified by users who are hard of hearing, are listed in their
perceived order of importance:
1. Not all programs closed captioned
2. Poor picture clarity impacting ability to read
lips
3. Inability to hear sounds
Note that the last two items are tied for importance.
Accessibility Features. Accessibility features of
televisions, as identified by users who are hard of hearing, are
listed in their perceived order of importance:
1. Closed captioning
2. Volume control
3. Dedicated remote button to control closed captioning
Note that the first two items are tied for importance.
This is, in part, due to different preferences of the participants,
perhaps resulting from their different levels of impairment. For
one, it was very important to be able to read the closed captioning
or to read lips, because trying to understand the audio tends to
be very frustrating. For the other participant, it was much more
important to be able to hear the audio output.
Impact of UD. If captioning worked 100 percent of
the time, it would cut down the frustration and stress of trying
to obtain information through television. Improved closed captioning
would enhance the enjoyment of watching the shows that are of particular
interest.
Analysis. To accommodate the hard-of-hearing population
that appreciates auditory output, television manufacturers should
have a standard for minimum/maximum volume levels and for decibel
changes for each volume increment. Manufacturers should strive to
produce clear audio signals at higher amplification levels. To accommodate
those who use or depend on closed captioning, content developers
should increase the availability and accuracy of closed captioning.
Users preferred the flexibility of the HDTV closed captioning standard
as opposed to the standard definition closed captioning standard.
Users perceived the HDTV closed caption configuration options, such
as color of text and background and size of text, as valuable. For
all users, the remote control should provide a dedicated button
for control of closed captioning.
Voice Recognition
User Experiences. Only one participant reported experience
with voice recognition; this experience was limited to telephone
technologies rather than computer software. There is some difficulty
in interpreting the voice because of the lack of clarity, and often
the option to replay the output is not available. The participant
prefers to handle all her business through the computer to avoid
the frustration associated with trying to understand audio output.
User Experiences for People Who Are Deaf
This section discusses the experiences of users who
are deaf with ATMs, cell phones, PDAs, distance learning, televisions,
and voice recognition software. Discussion revolved around general
experiences with each of the product lines and related technologies,
with the greatest focus on televisions (closed captioning), as that
is the device all participants had the most experience with. The
following sections summarize the user inputs.
ATM
In general, the participants who are deaf have had
no problems using ATMs.
User Experiences. All participants reported that they
have had no problems using ATMs, though they would like to have
added captioning. Some consumers who are deaf are aware of sounds
emitted from the ATM, though they cannot comprehend the sounds,
and their perception is that they are missing some information.
Participants mentioned some difficulties with other banking methods,
however, like using the drive-thru teller. Even though communication
can be accomplished fairly easily with pen and paper, some drive-thru
tellers try to encourage the customer who is deaf to go inside to
complete the banking transaction. Captioning would be another improvement
to the drive-thru experience.
Analysis. All auditory output should be provided in
a visual fashion as well, either through text or, in the case of
alerts, through lights or flashing to get attention of a user who
is deaf. Mirrors mounted on ATMs can provide an increased level
of safety for individuals who are deaf who may not hear someone
behind them.
Cell Phone
User Experiences. None of the participants had any
experience using a cell phone with TTY capability. There is some
awareness of phone systems that serve as a TTY, and the Sidekick
allows access to the relay system. Users who are deaf feel that
it is important for cell phone access to be combined with PDA functionality
for emergencies, even if they cannot or will not use the service
themselves. In emergencies, the users in the focus group said they
would be inclined to ask someone to place a phone call for them.
PDA
User Experiences. One participant uses a Palm-based
PDA, two have never used a PDA, and the third uses a device called
the Sidekick, which is a very similar technology. Those who have
used PDAs or PDA-like devices have experienced no accessibility
issues. Some added features that users would like to see on the
Sidekick are TTY capability and stylus pen input.
Distance Learning
User Experiences. Participants have had limited experience
with distance learning, but all feel they would much rather be in
the classroom. They feel that being around the other students and
in the classroom environment is part of the educational experience
and helps promote learning. The typical experience with online or
computer-based tutorials is that multimedia resources are not appropriately
captioned. Captioning is essential to the ability of the community
of people who are deaf to obtain information. One participant noted,
however, that some people’s primary language might be sign
language rather than, for example, English. This might create another
barrier to learning and communication, even if text or captioning
is provided. One participant attempted to take an online class but
felt the process was very complicated. She said that she spent all
her time trying to learn the system, leaving little actual time
to do the work. She felt that there would be a benefit to having
an initial face-to-face meeting with the instructor to become familiar
with the system.
Impact of UD. Despite the general preference to be
in the classroom, all participants indicated that they would like
the opportunity to use distance learning if it were completely accessible.
Analysis. All auditory distance learning content needs
to be provided visually as well as through captioning or a text
equivalent.
Television
User Experiences. Almost every television today comes
with captioning built in, but it is not always easy to set up through
the remote control and on-screen menus. Also, some programming is
not closed captioned. Some television stations are not always captioned;
specific shows are not always captioned; and other programming,
such as live news feeds and breaking news, tends not to be captioned.
No users were aware of any trends in availability of captioning.
Even when captioning is available, people who are deaf feel that
they have a disadvantage compared with people with hearing because
captioning does not provide complete translation of spoken words
(e.g., bad language is not captioned), and it is not always completed
at the end of a show.
Consumers would like the choice of being able to move
the captioning. Captioning often occludes sports scores, news tickers,
and other important information. They would also like to be able
to adjust the font size, and under some circumstances they would
like to adjust the background color. Most seem satisfied with white
text on a black background. One person noted that captioning is
easier to read on a larger television, and while larger televisions
are more expensive, she felt it was worth the extra cost. All participants
would like a dedicated button on the remote control to turn closed
captioning on and off. Participants were generally happy with the
speed at which captioning is displayed, though sometimes captioning
is displayed more quickly than normal, which can be a problem.
Captioning needs to be more reliable; sometimes the
captioning just stops working, and the consumer has no way of obtaining
information without the captioning. Users have no way of knowing
when the captioning will again be available. Accuracy is not always
high, but it is generally high enough for people to understand the
message.
Different methods are used to identify the source
of the speaker, and sometimes no distinction is made. All participants
prefer the rolling style of captioning, followed by the left to
right scan method; the block replacement method is least preferred.
None of the participants had direct experience with
captioning on HDTV. One user has heard that there are problems with
it, though she could not remember enough details to clearly describe
what she had heard.
Participants were asked to estimate the availability
of programming with closed captioning. Participants estimated that
between 25 and 70 percent of the shows currently available are captioned.
Accessibility Issues. Issues associated with closed
captioning can be divided into six distinct categories. Accuracy
is defined as the degree with which the closed captioned text matches
the spoken dialogue. Inaccuracies may result from spelling errors,
typing errors, or paraphrasing of the dialogue. Completion is defined
as the tendency for the closed captioning to represent the complete
dialogue. Occasionally, the closed captioning may appear to drop
out for a period of time. Also, users have reported that some dialogue
may be missed when transitioning to commercials or at the end of
the program. Noise is defined as the degree to which closed captioning
appears to be corrupted with random or nonsensical characters. Occasionally,
the closed captioning data stream may become corrupted. As a result,
the captioned fields appear to be filled with random characters.
Occlusion is defined as the degree to which closed captioning covers
important visual information. Captioning may appear over important
information such as sports scores or weather emergency information.
Persistence is defined as the degree to which the closed captioning
persists on the display long enough for a user to read the captioning.
Synchronicity is defined as the degree to which closed captioning
is presented in synchrony with the dialogue. Closed captioning occasionally
is presented slightly before or somewhat after the spoken dialogue.
Unsynchronized captioning may result in confusion for users who
are hard of hearing and still rely on their hearing to some extent.
Unsynchronized captioning may also make it difficult for some users
to comprehend the message of the program, particularly if the captioning
describes a visual image.
Accessibility issues of closed captioning, as identified
by users who are deaf, are listed in their perceived order of importance:
1. Accuracy
2. Completion
3. Persistence
4. Occlusion
5. Noise
6. Synchronicity
Analysis. More shows need to be captioned and captioning
needs to be reliable. The HDTV standard for captioning resolves
some of the issues addressed by the participants.
Voice Recognition
User Experiences. None of the participants could report
any experiences with voice recognition technologies.
User Experiences for People with Mobility Impairments
This section discusses the experiences with ATMs,
cell phones, PDAs, distance learning, televisions, and voice recognition
software for users with upper- and lower-mobility impairments. Discussion
revolved around general experiences, identification and prioritization
of accessibility issues and features, difficulty level experienced
in performing some specific tasks, and how more accessible designs
would alter usage patterns. The following sections summarize the
user inputs.
ATM
The upper mobility participants feel that they have
few problems using ATMs, as long as they can access the ATM to begin
with. Primary reasons for not being able to access the ATM are that
it is mounted too high, it does not have knee room, or the display
is angled poorly for a seated person. The swipe mechanism can also
be a deterrent for some users.
User Experiences. Two of the three participants have
used ATMs. The third participant, who uses a power wheelchair, has
never used one because she assumed she wouldn’t be able to
use it well from a seated position.
The height of the ATM is one of the primary deterrents
for users with mobility impairments. They need to be able to both
reach the buttons and to see the face of the buttons to know which
button is which. The nib on the “5” key is useful if
the button faces cannot be seen. Those who have problems grasping
items have some difficulties retrieving their cash, their card,
and their receipt. Swipe card readers are a bit easier for one participant
because he can maintain his hold on his card, though swiping can
be tricky for him and sometimes causes him to lose his balance.
He feels he would benefit more from a horizontal swipe mechanism
than a vertical swipe mechanism.
Some users have no difficulties with touchscreens,
and one participant feels that it can be a bit tough for the user
to ensure accuracy and that users would benefit from a confirm screen
and larger touch areas. ATMs ask if you want more time, so there
are few problems with timing issues. However, there is an occasional
machine that works differently and may require the user to start
over or to find a different machine.
Accessibility Issues. Accessibility issues of ATMs,
as identified by users who have combined upper- and lower-mobility
impairments, are listed in their perceived order of importance:
1. Lack of knee space
2. Height of machine
3. Viewing angle of display
4. Card slot/swipe mechanism
5. Small active area on touchscreen
6. Size and spacing of buttons
7. Keypad position and pressure requirement
8. Dispense mechanism, which requires grasping
Note that there are a few ties in the prioritization.
Lack of knee space and height of machine were equally rated because
the participants felt that both created barriers to being able to
use the machine at all, and if they can’t use the machine
nothing else matters. The other tie addresses, in part, the type
of control and display panel implemented on the ATM. Typically,
either a hard-button panel or a touchscreen is implemented, and
the participants felt that these items had equal importance. Priority
was based, in part, on the steps involved in using the ATM; if people
cannot reach the buttons, it does not matter to them what the size
and spacing are.
Accessibility Features. Accessibility features of
ATMs, as identified by users who have combined upper- and lower-mobility
impairments, are listed in their perceived order of importance:
1. Placement of machine at appropriate height
2. Proximity of card reader or other nonswipe mechanism
3. Raised buttons on keypad, with a nib on the “5”
and buttons that are easy to press
4. Cash tray with a slot in the middle for dispensing
5. Knee space under the machine
6. Touchscreen
Impact of UD. All participants felt that if the ATM
were completely accessible, it would not change their use. The reasons
for this are that they cannot afford to use the ATM more often than
they currently do, or they have other methods of handling their
funds, through either online banking or credit card use.
Analysis. Height, while more obviously a problem for
lower-mobility impaired users, can also be a problem for upper-mobility
impaired users who have limited reach. Standards need to be set
and enforced for machine height as well as control height and display
angle. All ATMs should have knee room for those who require use
from a seated position.
Cell Phone
All participants have a cell phone, but they are limited
in choice of phone because of size and weight and ability to press
the buttons.
User Experiences. None of the participants have “clamshell”
style phones because they cannot open them. Even if the open mechanism
were accessible, they would prefer the “candy bar” style
because it eliminates the extra step required to open the phone
with the clamshell design. They all use lightweight phones. Two
of the phones have a standard keypad. The other has a toggle key
design, which works really well for the participant without finger
function. The toggle key design also has good spacing between the
keys. Some keys are more difficult for some users to activate than
others. One participant does some text messaging, but he must have
the phone on a surface in order to activate the controls.
Hands-free operation is very useful for the upper-mobility
impaired. One individual has difficulty holding the cell phone to
her ear without elbow support. Hands-free operation also allows
a person in a manual wheelchair to use the phone and still be mobile.
One participant keeps her cell phone in a case that is attached
with Velcro to her wheelchair, adjacent to the wheelchair controls.
One of the phones has a loop attached that facilitates carrying
the phone without having to grasp it in the hand.
Accessibility Issues. Accessibility issues of cell
phones, as identified by users who have combined upper- and lower-mobility
impairments, are listed in their perceived order of importance:
1. Difficulty with flip phones
2. Heavy, hard-to-hold phones
3. Small, hard-to-press buttons
4. Requirement for two-handed operation
5. Poor battery life or antenna range
6. Difficult to insert connectors
7. Display size and quality
8. Requirement for antenna extension
9. Access to battery and subscriber identity module
(sim) card
Note that the first two items are prioritized the
same. If the person cannot hold the phone or access the buttons,
then it cannot be used, and thus none of the other issues matter.
Accessibility Features. Accessibility features of
cell phones, as identified by users who have combined upper- and
lower-mobility impairments, are listed in their perceived order
of importance:
1. Lightweight
2. “Candy bar” style (rather than “clamshell”)
3. Hands-free operation
4. Button size and spacing
5. Long battery life
6. Voice dialing
7. Loop handle to carry phone
8. Keypad shortcuts
Analysis. Users with upper-mobility impairments have
a limited selection of phones that are accessible to them. Lightweight
phones in the “candy bar” style with rather large keys
are most accessible. Fortunately, many cellular phone service providers
offer phones that are accessible to people with upper-mobility impairments
in their least expensive offerings. Premium cellular phones, such
as smart phones or phones with integrated PDA functionality, and
cellular phones with advanced features are less likely to be accessible
because of their clamshell design or size.
PDA
PDAs are appreciated for their portability. They allow
those with limited strength to carry fewer things with them, like
address books and calendars, by combining most essential functions
into a small, lightweight device. All users reported that they would
like an integrated PDA and cell phone.
User Experiences. Two of the three participants own
a PDA. Individuals with use of a single hand have difficulty holding
a PDA while making inputs. One individual requires a built-up (fatter)
stylus, but he has found that some stylus devices do not work as
well as others to activate the screen. Another often uses her fingers
rather than the stylus. All individuals need to have the device
itself supported on a surface or to have their arms supported. While
it is generally not problematic to use the device when it is placed
on a surface, there is often a need to use the device when a stable
surface is unavailable. There are also glare and other readability
issues associated with using a PDA when it is on a flat surface.
One individual has tried an external PDA keyboard,
but the task of folding and unfolding it as well as attaching it
to the PDA was difficult for the user. Two hands were required to
attach the keyboard. Word completion is very helpful for upper-mobility
impaired users because it reduces the number of inputs required.
Analysis. The size of most PDAs on the market today
is appropriate for users with upper-mobility impairments. A convergence
device with an integrated PDA and cellular telephone would be particularly
useful for people with upper-mobility impairments, because it would
reduce the number of devices that they would have to carry with
them. PDAs are designed for two-handed operation; however, most
users with upper-mobility impairments are able to use the PDA if
a stable work surface is available. PDAs and associated applications
are generally designed to be operated with a stylus. Use of the
stylus requires fine motor control that may be beyond the functional
capabilities of some users. An alternative navigation scheme, such
as five-way button navigation, may be helpful to those with limited
fine motor control.
Distance Learning
User Experiences. Only one individual has had experience
with computer-based training and did not feel there were any accessibility
issues.
Television
User Experiences. Users reported difficulty with the
initial set-up and configuration of televisions. The cable connectors
are inaccessible to someone with an upper-mobility impairment. The
connectors are often located behind the television, making it difficult
for someone using a mobility aid to access them.
None of the individuals reported difficulties using
the remote control device. They did not feel that the design of
a remote would influence their purchasing decision for a television;
good picture and sound quality are the most important factors. It
can be difficult to juggle multiple remote control devices, so they
really appreciate the universal remotes. However, not all universal
remotes can control all features of a particular device, so universal
remotes do not eliminate the need to access the individual device
remotes.
Analysis. The need to juggle multiple remotes can
be solved through the design of a universal remote that is easily
configurable to match the user’s equipment. The remote should
be lightweight and easy to hold to accommodate users with limited
strength. The remote control buttons should be large and sufficiently
separated from one another to facilitate operation by someone with
limited fine motor control.
Voice Recognition
User Experiences. All participants feel that voice
recognition can be useful for some circumstances, but generally
they feel they can be faster with their own typing or they prefer
to use the abilities they have for as long as they can. There are
many problems and frustrations with accuracy of voice recognition,
which is a deterrent for most people who have other alternatives
they can use. Some people also have problems putting on a headset,
and environmental factors can limit use of an external microphone
and speaker.
Analysis. Users with mobility impairments reported
that they did not use natural language voice recognition software
for the same reasons as other users. The accuracy of voice recognition
is simply not high enough compared with what can be accomplished
using a keyboard.
Analysis of Georgia Tech Universal Design Survey
Data
A total of 320 individuals with disabilities participated
in the Georgia Tech Universal Design Survey. The survey provided
three general types of accessibility data on six types of devices:
ATMs, cell phones, distance learning or computer-based training
software, PDAs, televisions, and voice recognition software. For
each device, participants were asked to (1) indicate their level
of experience with the device, (2) estimate the level of disability-related
difficulty in using the device, and (3) rate the usefulness of a
set of disability-specific accessibility features that might be
associated with the device. Most data is presented in tabular format.
Where appropriate, the standard deviation (SD) of a measure has
been indicated in parentheses.
The survey captured data from people with a wide range
of disabilities, including vision (40%), hearing (27%), and both
upper (38%) and lower (46%) mobility impairments. Summary statistics
were compiled for six general areas of disability: blindness, low
vision, deafness, hard of hearing, and upper- and lower-mobility
impairments. Most respondents (77%) were 35–64 years of age.
Table 19 contains a breakout of the survey participants by reported
age.
Table 19: Ages of Participants
As a whole, respondents tended to have a good deal
of experience using ATMs, cell phones, and televisions, but little
experience with distance learning/computer-based training, voice
recognition software, and PDAs (although this was sometimes dependent
on a person’s disability, as discussed below). While people
who are deaf seem to have the greatest difficulty in using voice
recognition software, each of the remaining device types under examination
presented the greatest barriers to users who are blind.
Experience with Devices
Respondents were asked to indicate their level of
experience for each device on a four-point scale. Values represent
the mean value on the following scale: 1 = no experience, 2 = little
experience, 3 = some experience, 4 = very experienced. Table 20
summarizes the indicated level of experience reported by users for
each product line. Respondents were familiar with the use of ATMs,
cellular telephones, and televisions. Respondents were less familiar
with the use of distance learning/computer-based training software,
PDAs, and voice recognition software.
Table 20: Experience with the Product Lines
Product Manual Format Preference
Participants were asked for their preferred format
for product manuals. Values represent the proportion of respondents
of a particular disability type that preferred that format. Table
21 contains the proportion of respondents that reported a preference
for product manual format. While most users preferred a standard
print manual, low-vision users reported a preference for large print
manuals, and users who are blind preferred an electronic manual
in accessible HTML or an audio tape manual. Many users who are blind
also reported a preference for a Braille manual. None of the users
who are blind reported a preference for a manual delivered in Adobe
PDF format.
Table 21: Product Manual Preference for Each User Type
Automated Teller Machines (ATMs)
For the most part, respondents indicated a fairly
high level of experience with using ATMs, along with low levels
of difficulty in completing device-related activities. The exception
seemed to be with participants who are blind. These respondents
indicated a slightly lower level of experience with ATMs than the
other disability groups, although the majority of the users who
are blind indicated they had at least some experience on this device.
Furthermore, people who are blind seemed to have a greater level
of difficulty in using ATMs. While people in the other disability
categories tended to have little or no trouble in accomplishing
tasks, respondents who are blind indicated they had at least some
difficulty on many tasks, including basic tasks such as locating
accessible ATMs, making deposits, checking account balances, and
printing a statement.
Level of Experience
Respondents were asked to indicate their level of
experience using ATMs on a four-point scale. Results are presented
in Table 22. Values represent the mean value on the following scale:
1 = no experience, 2 = little experience, 3 = some experience, 4
= very experienced.
Table 22: Level of Experience with ATMs by Disability
Type
Difficulty Completing Device-Related Activities
Respondents estimated the difficulty they had in personally
accomplishing activities in the previous year due to physical or
cognitive limitations caused by a disability. Results are presented
in Table 23. Values represent the mean value on the following scale:
1 = little or no difficulty, 2 = some difficulty, 3 = great difficulty.
Users who are blind reported great difficulty in performing the
following activities:
- Locating an ATM
- Locating an accessible ATM
- Making a cash withdrawal
- Making a deposit
- Checking account balances
- Printing a statement
- Reading a receipt
Low-vision users reported some difficulty in locating
an accessible ATM, making a deposit, and reading the receipt. Users
who are deaf or hard of hearing reported little difficulty in performing
the activities associated with ATM usage. Users with mobility impairments
reported some difficulty in locating an accessible ATM, inserting
the bank card, entering the PIN, making a cash withdrawal, making
a deposit, retrieving a receipt, and retrieving the bank card.
Table 23: Reported Difficulty in Completing ATM Activities
by User Type. (SD)
Usefulness of Features
Participants were asked to estimate the usefulness
of accessibility features associated with the device on a four-point
scale. Values represent the mean value on the following scale: 1
= not useful, 2 = slightly useful, 3 = moderately useful, 4 = extremely
useful. Features differed by disability type and therefore are presented
as such. Table 24 presents the results of the assessment of the
usefulness of ATM accessibility features for users who are blind.
Features associated with the operation of an ATM with voice displays
(talking ATM) were consistently rated as useful. However, users
rated voice control of ATMs as moderately useful. Users also rated
items associated with touch-discernible keys (nib on the “5”
key, keys discernible by touch, and Braille labels) as useful.
Table 24: Usefulness of ATM Accessibility Features
as Reported by Participants Who Are Blind
Table 25 presents the results of the assessment of
the usefulness of ATM accessibility features for users with low
vision. Users with low vision preferred to enhance the visual displays
by increasing the contrast of the displays and introducing larger
displays and keys, as opposed to using a voice display. Users with
low vision also reported that the ability to request additional
time is useful.
Table 25: Usefulness of ATM Accessibility Features
as Reported by Participants with Low Vision
Table 26 presents the results of the assessment of
the usefulness of ATM accessibility features for users who are deaf.
Users rated accessibility features associated with providing text
or graphical equivalents of auditory information as useful.
Table26: Usefulness of ATM Accessibility Features
as Reported by Participants Who Are Deaf.
Table 27 presents the results of the assessment of
the usefulness of ATM accessibility features for users who are hard
of hearing. Users who are hard of hearing rated the usefulness of
accessibility features associated with providing text or graphical
equivalents of auditory information as useful. The priorities of
the features for users who are hard of hearing and users who are
deaf were identical. However, the rating scores of usefulness for
users who are hard of hearing were slightly lower than scores associated
with users who are deaf.
Table27: Usefulness of ATM Accessibility Features
as Reported by Participants Who Are Hard of Hearing
Table 28 presents the results of the assessment of
the usefulness of ATM accessibility features for users with upper-mobility
impairments. Most users reported the listed accessibility features
as being only moderately useful. The accessibility features receiving
the highest scores are larger keys and increased spacing between
the keys. Ease to press keys was also rated as a useful feature.
Table28: Usefulness of ATM Accessibility Features
as Reported by Participants with Upper-Mobility Impairments
Table 29 presents the results of the assessment of
the usefulness of ATM accessibility features for users with lower-mobility
impairments. Users rated the accessibility features listed in the
survey as only moderately useful. Accessibility features associated
with making the display screen easier to read (high contrast displays,
large fonts, and large display screens) and larger keys were rated
as most useful.
Table29: Usefulness of ATM Accessibility Features
as Reported by Participants with Lower-Mobility Impairments
Cell Phones
Respondents also indicated a fairly high level of
experience with using cell phones. People who are deaf had a lower
level of experience overall with this device and seem to have a
good deal of trouble using cell phones. People who are blind reported
having great difficulty with many aspects of using this device,
including determining signal strength, sending and receiving text
messages, storing phone numbers, and accessing caller-ID (functions
and information that are normally provided only on the display).
Level of Experience
Respondents were asked to indicate their level of
experience using cell phones on a four-point scale. Results are
presented in Table 30. Values represent the mean value on the following
scale: 1 = no experience, 2 = little experience, 3 = some experience,
4 = very experienced. Most users were experienced with using cellular
phones. Users who are deaf or hard of hearing, particularly users
who are deaf, were less experienced than others.
Table30: Level of Experience with Cellular Phones
by Disability Type
Difficulty Completing Device-Related Activities
Respondents estimated the difficulty they had in personally accomplishing
activities in the previous year due to physical or cognitive limitations
caused by a disability. Results are presented in Table 31. Values
represent the mean value on the following scale: 1 = little or no
difficulty, 2 = some difficulty, 3 = great difficulty. Users who
are blind had great difficulty using the advanced functionality
of cellular phones. Users who are blind rated storing a phone number,
recalling a stored phone number, receiving caller-ID information,
determining battery status, determining signal strength, detecting
when the phone is in roam mode, and using text messaging as extremely
difficult, primarily because of the inaccessibility of the visual
display. Low-vision users reported the most difficulty in using
text messaging features. Users who are deaf or hard of hearing reported
difficulty in receiving a phone call and accessing voice mail. Users
with mobility impairments generally found cellular phones to be
accessible but reported some difficulty in using text messaging.
Table31: Reported Difficulty in Completing Cellular
Phone Activities by User Type. (SD)
Usefulness of Features
Participants were asked to estimate the usefulness of accessibility
features associated with the device on a four-point scale. Values
represent the mean value on the following scale: 1 = not useful,
2 = slightly useful, 3 = moderately useful, 4 = extremely useful.
Features differed by disability type and therefore are presented
as such.
Table 32 presents the results of the assessment of the usefulness
of cellular phone accessibility features for users who are blind.
Users rated accessibility features associated with nonvisual presentation
of visual information as being extremely useful. The highest rated
accessibility feature was talking battery level indicators, as users
who are blind often do not know if they need to recharge their phone
until minutes before the battery is exhausted. Participants also
reported that voiced menu options would be extremely useful. Users
who are blind are not able to use the advanced functionality of
their cellular phones because of the inaccessibility of the display
menus. The raised area (nib) on the “5” key used in
conjunction with a standard telephone keypad layout is also a very
useful feature. Users who are blind are very familiar with the standard
telephone keypad layout and can easily orient themselves to the
cell phone keypad by locating the central “5” key.
Table32: Usefulness of Cellular Phone Accessibility
Features as Reported by Participants Who Are Blind
Table 33 presents the results of the assessment of
the usefulness of cellular phone accessibility features for users
with low vision. In contrast to users who are blind, users with
low vision do not prefer to make use of visual information presented
in other formats. Instead of replacing display menus with voiced
menus, users with low vision prefer to rely on their remaining visual
capability. Therefore, high contrast displays and larger display
screens are perceived as being very useful.
Table33: Usefulness of Cellular Phone Accessibility
Features as Reported by Participants with Low Vision.
Users who are deaf ranked vibrating alerts (average
score = 3.7; SD = 0.9) and TTY compatibility (average score = 3.5;
SD = 1.1) as extremely useful accessibility features for cellular
phones.
Table 34 presents the results of the assessment of the usefulness
of cellular phone accessibility features for users who are hard
of hearing. Users who are hard of hearing ranked adjustable volume
as the most useful accessibility feature for cellular phones. Often,
the range of volume adjustment available on standard cellular phones
is not sufficient for users with diminished hearing capacity. Vibrating
alerts were also rated very useful because it is difficult for some
users who are deaf or hard of hearing to detect when a call is being
received.
Table34: Usefulness of Cellular Phone Accessibility
Features as Reported by Participants Who Are Hard of Hearing
Table 35 presents the results of the assessment of
the usefulness of cellular phone accessibility features for users
with upper-mobility impairments. Users with upper-mobility impairments
ranked accessibility features associated with hands-free operation
as being most useful. Users also reported that accessibility features
of the keypad—such as larger keys, increased distances between
adjacent keys, and keypress feedback—are very useful. Speed
dialing features were also ranked as very useful.
Table35: Usefulness of Cellular Phone Accessibility
Features as Reported by Participants with Upper-Mobility Impairments
Users with lower-mobility impairments ranked speakerphones
(average score = 3.2; SD =1.2) and cradles that attach to mobility
aids such as wheelchairs or scooters (average score 3.1; SD = 1.3)
as being moderately useful.
Distance Learning or Computer-Based Training Software
Respondents were much less experienced with distance learning and
computer-based training software. Nonetheless, most participants
indicated they have little difficulty in accomplishing tasks related
to this category. The exception again is people who are blind, who
indicated high levels of difficulty in accomplishing relevant tasks
such as using chat software, viewing PowerPoint presentations, and
reading documents in PDF format.
Level of Experience
Respondents were asked to indicate their level of experience using
distance learning or computer-based training software on a four-point
scale. Results are presented in Table 36. Values represent the mean
value on the following scale: 1 = no experience, 2 = little experience,
3 = some experience, 4 = very experienced. Users of all disability
types were not very experienced with distance learning software.
Table36: Level of Experience with Distance Learning
Software by Disability Type
Difficulty Completing Device-Related Activities
Respondents estimated the difficulty they had in personally accomplishing
activities in the previous year due to physical or cognitive limitations
caused by a disability. Results are presented in Table 37. Values
represent the mean value on the following scale: 1 = little or no
difficulty, 2 = some difficulty, 3 = great difficulty. Users who
are blind reported great difficulty in using instant messaging software,
reading documents in Adobe PDF format, viewing presentations in
Microsoft PowerPoint format, and using online chat software.
Table37: Reported Difficulty in Completing Distance
Learning Software Activities by User Type
Usefulness of Features
Participants were asked to estimate the usefulness of accessibility
features associated with the device on a four-point scale. Values
represent the mean value on the following scale: 1 = not useful,
2 = slightly useful, 3 = moderately useful, 4 = extremely useful.
Features differed by disability type and therefore are presented
as such.
Table 38 presents the results of the assessment of the usefulness
of distance learning software accessibility features for users who
are blind. Users ranked screen-reader compatibility and text description
of visual items as extremely useful.
Table38: Usefulness of Distance Learning Software Accessibility
Features as Reported by Participants Who Are Blind
Table 39 presents the results of the assessment of
the usefulness of distance learning software accessibility features
for users with low vision. In contrast to users who are blind, users
with low vision rated items associated with increased utility of
the visual displays higher than screen-reader compatibility or described
visual items. Users with low vision would prefer to increase the
font size of the visual display over using a screen magnifier.
Table39: Usefulness of Distance Learning Software Accessibility
Features as Reported by Participants with Low Vision
Participants who are deaf rated closed captioned video
as extremely useful (average score = 4.0; SD = 0.00). Participants
who are hard of hearing rated closed captioned video (average score
= 3.4; SD = 1.2) and adjustable volume (average score = 3.4; SD
= 0.9) as being very useful.
Table 40 presents the results of the assessment of the usefulness
of distance learning software accessibility features for users with
upper-mobility impairments. Users with upper-mobility impairments
may require additional time while interacting with classroom materials
or taking an online test. The ability to request additional time
was ranked as the most useful accessibility feature.
Table40: Usefulness of Distance Learning Software Accessibility
Features as Reported by Participants with Upper-Mobility Impairments
Participants with lower-mobility impairments rated
touchscreen displays as moderately useful (average score = 2.8;
SD = 1.3).
Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs)
Most respondents seemed to have very little experience with using
PDAs. Related tasks presented only a small degree of difficulty
to most user groups, although respondents with visual impairments
noted great difficulty in several areas, including adjusting controls
and installing software.
Level of Experience
Respondents were asked to indicate their level of experience using
a PDA on a four-point scale. Results are presented in Table 41.
Values represent the mean value on the following scale: 1 = no experience,
2 = little experience, 3 = some experience, 4 = very experienced.
All user types reported similar levels of experience with PDAs.
Table41: Level of Experience with PDAs by Disability
Type
Difficulty Completing Device-Related Activities
Respondents estimated the difficulty they had in personally accomplishing
activities in the previous year due to physical or cognitive limitations
caused by a disability. Results are presented in Table 42. Values
represent the mean value on the following scale: 1 = little or no
difficulty, 2 = some difficulty, 3 = great difficulty. Users who
are blind reported extreme difficulty in using mainstream PDA consumer
products. Mainstream PDAs rely on the use of a stylus-operated display
that is completely inaccessible to users who are blind. However,
users who are blind may rely on Braille note takers or other alternative
input devices that allow them to perform some of the same functions
of mainstream PDAs. In general, when users who are blind reported
experience with using PDAs, they were reporting their experiences
with alternative interface devices.
Table42: Reported Difficulty in Completing PDA Activities
by User Type. (SD)
Usefulness of Features
Participants were asked to estimate the usefulness of accessibility
features associated with the device on a four-point scale. Values
represent the mean value on the following scale: 1 = not useful,
2 = slightly useful, 3 = moderately useful, 4 = extremely useful.
Features differed by disability type and therefore are presented
as such.
Table 43 presents the results of the assessment of the usefulness
of PDA accessibility features for users who are blind. The most
useful accessibility feature for users who are blind is compatibility
with screen-readers. Currently, screen-reader technology is not
available for mainstream consumer products powered by the Microsoft
Pocket PC or the Palm operating systems. Availability of screen-reader
technologies would greatly increase the accessibility of PDAs for
users who are blind.
Table43: Usefulness of PDA Accessibility Features as
Reported by Participants Who Are Blind
Table 44 presents the results of the assessment of the usefulness
of PDA accessibility features for users with low vision. Users with
low vision ranked accessibility features associated with increasing
the readability of visual displays as very useful. In contrast to
users who are blind, users with low vision ranked compatibility
with screen-readers as only moderately useful.
Table44: Usefulness of PDA Accessibility Features as
Reported by Participants with Low Vision
Participants who are deaf rated vibrating alerts as
extremely useful (average score = 3.7; SD = 0.9). Participants who
are hard of hearing reported that vibrating alerts (average score
= 3.4; SD = 1.1) and adjustable volume (average score = 3.3; SD
= 1.2) are very useful accessibility features for PDAs.
Table 45 presents the results of the assessment of the usefulness
of PDA accessibility features for users with upper-mobility impairments.
Users with upper mobility impairments ranked accessibility features
associated with keys (key size and distance between adjacent keys)
as being most useful.
Table45: Usefulness of PDA Accessibility Features as
Reported by Participants with Upper-Mobility Impairments
Participants with lower-mobility impairments reported
that a cradle that attaches to a mobility aid such as a wheelchair
or scooter would be a useful accessibility feature of PDAs.
Televisions
Televisions were defined to include both standard definition and
high definition (HDTV) models. Most respondents indicated a very
high level of experience using a television, and most reported they
had very little difficulty accomplishing related tasks. Participants
who are blind were once again the exception, as they indicated great
difficulty in using the advanced features of the television, such
as picture-in-picture features, accessing electronic program guides,
and activating features such as closed-captioning and descriptive
video services.
Level of Experience
Respondents were asked to indicate their level of experience using
a television on a four-point scale. Results are presented in Table
46. Values represent the mean value on the following scale: 1 =
no experience, 2 = little experience, 3 = some experience, 4 = very
experienced. All user groups reported high levels of experience
with televisions.
Table46: Level of Experience with Televisions by Disability
Type
Difficulty Completing Device-Related Activities
Respondents estimated the difficulty they had in personally accomplishing
activities in the previous year due to physical or cognitive limitations
caused by a disability. Results are presented in Table 47. Values
represent the mean value on the following scale: 1 = little or no
difficulty, 2 = some difficulty, 3 = great difficulty. Users of
all types reported little difficulty in using basic television features
and some difficulty in using more advanced features such as activating
accessibility features, using picture-in-picture, accessing the
program guide, or adjusting picture-quality settings. Users who
are blind could access basic television features as easily as other
users. However, users who are blind had more difficulty accessing
advanced functionality when compared to the other user types.
Table47: Reported Difficulty in Completing Television
Activities by User Type. (SD)
Usefulness of Features
Participants were asked to estimate the usefulness of accessibility
features associated with the device on a four-point scale. Values
represent the mean value on the following scale: 1 = not useful,
2 = slightly useful, 3 = moderately useful, 4 = extremely useful.
Features differed by disability type and therefore are presented
as such.
Table 48 presents the results of the assessment of the usefulness
of television accessibility features for users who are blind. Users
who are blind rated descriptive video services as the most useful
accessibility feature for televisions. Relatively few programs are
available with audio description, although it is becoming more popular.
Easy access to accessibility features via a dedicated button on
the remote control was also ranked as a very useful function. Several
television manufacturers now offer television sets with dedicated
buttons for closed captioning and control of the secondary audio
program (SAP) for audio description services. Users who are blind
also ranked voiced equivalents for on-screen menus and program guides
as useful accessibility features.
Table48: Usefulness of Television Accessibility Features
as Reported by Participants Who Are Blind
Table 49 presents the results of the assessment of the usefulness
of television accessibility features for users with low vision.
Users with low vision ranked the accessibility features associated
with increasing the readability of the on-screen program guide as
being very useful. Users also felt that features associated with
the usability of the remote control, such as large buttons and more
space between adjacent buttons, were also useful.
Table49: Usefulness of Television Accessibility Features
as Reported by Participants with Low Vision
Table 50 presents the results of the assessment of
the usefulness of television accessibility features for users who
are deaf. Users who are deaf ranked closed captioning and the presence
of a dedicated button on the remote control to control closed captioning
as the most important accessibility features for televisions. Users
noted that the ability to adjust the presentation of closed captioned
text was also useful.
Table50: Usefulness of Television Accessibility Features
as Reported by Participants Who Are Deaf
Table 51 presents the results of the assessment of
the usefulness of television accessibility features for users who
are hard of hearing. Accessibility feature priority identified by
users who are hard of hearing was identical to that of users who
are deaf. Users who are hard of hearing judged each accessibility
feature as being slightly less useful than did users who are deaf.
Table51: Usefulness of Television Accessibility Features
as Reported by Participants Who Are Hard of Hearing
Table 52 presents the results of the assessment of
the usefulness of television accessibility features for users with
upper-mobility impairments. Users with upper-mobility impairments
judged accessibility features associated with remote controls as
being most useful.
Table52: Usefulness of Television Accessibility Features
as Reported by Participants with Upper-Mobility Impairments
Participants with lower-mobility impairments ranked
voice-activated remote controls (average score = 2.8; SD = 1.4)
and talking remote controls (average score = 2.4; SD = 1.3) slightly
to moderately useful.
Voice Recognition Software
Voice recognition software was defined to include both software
that can be installed on computers as an alternative input device
and software that is embedded within other applications, such as
automatic telephone attendants and kiosks. Most respondents had
very little experience with using voice recognition software, although
respondents who are blind seemed to have slightly more experience
with this technology than people in the other disability groups.
Tasks associated with voice recognition were deemed fairly difficult
to accomplish by respondents in all disability groups, especially
using it in public settings and over a headset. Respondents who
are deaf rated all of the associated tasks as especially difficult.
Level of Experience
Respondents were asked to indicate their level of experience using
voice recognition software on a four-point scale. Results are presented
in Table 53. Values represent the mean value on the following scale:
1 = no experience, 2 = little experience, 3 = some experience, 4
= very experienced. Users who are blind had the most experience
using voice recognition software. Users who are deaf, in general,
had little or no experience with voice recognition software.
Table53: Level of Experience with Voice Recognition
Software by Disability Type
Difficulty Completing Device-Related Activities
Respondents estimated the difficulty they had in personally accomplishing
activities in the previous year due to physical or cognitive limitations
caused by a disability. Results are presented in Table 54. Values
represent the mean value on the following scale: 1 = little or no
difficulty, 2 = some difficulty, 3 = great difficulty. Users who
are blind reported little difficulty in using automatic voice recognition
phone attendants and understanding computerized voices, perhaps
because they tended to rely on voice interfaces as an alternative
user interface more than other user groups. Most users reported
difficulty in using voice recognition software to control the computer
or in public settings. Users who are deaf in general could not use
the software.
Table54: Reported Difficulty in Completing Voice Recognition
Software Activities by User Type
Usefulness of Features
Participants were asked to estimate the usefulness of accessibility
features associated with the device on a four-point scale. Values
represent the mean value on the following scale: 1 = not useful,
2 = slightly useful, 3 = moderately useful, 4 = extremely useful.
Features differed by disability type and therefore are presented
as such.
Table 55 presents the results of the assessment of the usefulness
of voice recognition software accessibility features for users who
are blind. Users who are blind indicated that adjustable volume
and the ability to control the parameters of voice playback were
desirable accessibility features. Users also suggested that assistance
with error correction was a very desirable accessibility feature
with voice recognition software.
Table55: Usefulness of Voice Recognition Software Accessibility
Features as Reported by Participants Who Are Blind
Table 56 presents the results of the assessment of
the usefulness of voice recognition software accessibility features
for users with low vision. The desirability of accessibility features
reported by low-vision users for voice recognition software was
similar to that reported by users who are blind. Notably the ability
to adjust the volume and playback speed were ranked lower by users
with low vision than by users who are blind, perhaps because of
less experience with voice recognition software.
Table56: Usefulness of Voice Recognition Software Accessibility
Features as Reported by Participants with Low Vision
Table 57 presents the results of the assessment of
the usefulness of voice recognition software accessibility features
for users who are hard of hearing. Users who are hard of hearing
ranked accessibility features associated with playback control as
very useful. The ability to adjust the volume of the voice was also
ranked as a desirable feature.
Table57: Usefulness of Voice Recognition Software Accessibility
Features as Reported by Participants Who Are Hard of Hearing
Users with upper-mobility impairments rated the automatic
suggestion of alternatives for voice recognition errors (average
score = 3.1; SD = 1.2) as being moderately useful. Users with lower-mobility
impairments rated wireless microphones (average score = 3.1; SD
= 1.3) and adjustable microphones (average score = 3.0; SD = 1.3)
as being moderately useful accessibility features of voice recognition
software.
Discussion
The purpose of the user study was to document the use and acceptance
of accessibility features in products representative of the product
lines selected for study. Table 58 summarizes the reported level
of experience with each product line by disability type, as documented
in the analysis of the Georgia Tech Universal Design Survey. Values
represent the mean value on the following scale: 1 = no experience,
2 = little experience, 3 = some experience, 4 = very experienced.
Standard deviations are presented in parentheses.
Table58: User Experience with Each of the Product Lines
by Disability Type
In general, users were very experienced with using
ATMs, cellular phones, and televisions. Users who are blind were
less familiar with ATMs that were all other user groups. Recently,
many banks have added voice display functionality to ATMs. The talking
ATM design has greatly increased the accessibility of ATMs to users
who are blind; however, many users who are blind are still reluctant
to use ATMs.
Users who are deaf reported less experience with cellular phones
than other user types. Users who are deaf reported in the Georgia
Tech Universal Design Survey that TTY compatibility (average score
= 3.5, out of a maximum score of 4.0) is an extremely useful accessibility
feature; however, few users reported making TTY calls with their
cellular phone. According to the focus group participants, users
who are deaf are much more likely to make use of text messaging
features offered by their cellular service provider than to connect
their TTY device to their cellular phone. Fifty-nine percent of
the users who are deaf or hard of hearing who used cell phones reported
in the Wireless RERC survey that text messaging was at least somewhat
important to them.
Users were less familiar with distance learning software, PDAs,
and voice recognition software. In some cases, unfamiliarity with
a device is directly attributable to the accessibility of the device.
For example, users who are blind were not very familiar with using
PDAs because the technology is largely inaccessible to them. Likewise,
users who are deaf are not likely to use voice recognition software.
Familiarity with a product line is also dependent on its demand
and availability. Most participants in the user study reported that
they did not have a need to take distance learning courses and therefore
had very little experience in using the software. The availability
of distance learning courses is also somewhat limited compared with
the other product lines. Finally, familiarity with voice recognition
software is limited by the perceived utility of the software. Most
focus group participants reported negative experiences with using
voice recognition software packages designed for computer input.
Users are less likely to use the software if the perceived utility
is low.
ATM. Users with visual impairments
find ATMs difficult to use. Table 59 indicates the reported use
difficulty by disability type from the Wireless RERC survey. All
values in the table are percentages of users indicating a particular
use difficulty category. Users who are deaf or hard of hearing reported
little difficulty using ATMs. Users with mobility impairments reported
moderate levels of difficulty using ATMs.
Table59: ATM Use Difficulty by Disability Type
Talking ATMs have increased the accessibility of ATMs
to users who are blind; however, many important issues have not
yet been resolved.
Although accessibility issues encompass social as well as technological
barriers, manufacturers tend to focus on solving only the latter,
without due consideration of the entire user experience. In the
focus group, users who are blind indicated that although talking
ATMs are likely to be an improvement in terms of accessibility,
they may still be reluctant to use these devices. First, users who
are unfamiliar with the technology may be reluctant to try it out
if other bank customers must wait while they learn to use the device.
Second, users who are blind and users with lower-mobility impairments
are concerned about security. Users who are blind have no way of
knowing if someone is watching them enter their PIN. Users with
lower-mobility impairments cannot adequately mask their fingers
as they enter their PIN code. In designing accessibility solutions,
it is necessary to consider the entire user experience and keep
these types of accessibility solutions in mind.
Cellular Phone. Table 60
shows the proportion of responses associated with three major disability
types on an ease-of-use scale employed in the Wireless RERC survey.
Overall, users who are deaf or hard of hearing find cellular phones
rather difficult to use. Users who are visually impaired report
considerable difficulty in using the advanced features of cellular
phones. Users with mobility impairments report moderate levels of
difficulty.
Table60: Cellular Phone Use Difficulty by Disability
Type
A large number of cellular phone options are available.
New cell phones are constantly introduced, and users have difficulty
keeping up with the available options.
Users have difficulty finding devices that match their functional
capabilities.
Cellular service provider sales associates are unlikely to be familiar
with the accessibility features of cellular phones. Therefore, users
have a difficult time finding phones that match their functional
capabilities. Users often rely on recommendations from their peers
or on “trial and error” when selecting a new phone.
The lack of useful information about accessibility features contributes
to the perception that cellular phones are more inaccessible than
they are in reality.
Accessibility features seem to be present on phones that are more
expensive. For example, voice technologies that increase the accessibility
of cellular phones for people who are blind are typically available
only on high-end business model phones.
Users dislike paying more for equal access or paying for features
that are inaccessible.
Users in the focus groups expressed discontent with being expected
to pay high prices for accessibility features. Users with disabilities
are also often asked to pay high prices for phones with feature
sets that are not useful to them.
Distance Learning Software.
Most users reported little or no experience using distance learning
software. For most user groups, most tasks could be accomplished
with little difficulty. Users who are blind reported greater levels
of difficulty than other groups, especially in using chat software,
viewing PowerPoint presentations, and reading PDF files.
In general, developers of distance learning software have been successful
at building accessibility features into their products. However,
once the software is delivered, it is the responsibility of the
instructor or professor to develop course materials in an accessible
manner.
Content providers must adhere to accessibility standards during
content production.
The effort required to produce accessible course materials is great,
and many instructors do not have the experience or the resources
to produce accessible content. For example, WGBH, the PBS affiliate
in Boston, reports that it can take an experienced technician 14
hours to add closed captioning to a one-hour television program.
Instructors simply do not have the skill sets or the time to produce
accessible content, even though accessibility is technically achievable.
PDA. Users who are blind,
users with low vision, and (to a lesser extent) users with upper-mobility
impairments found PDAs difficult or impossible to use. Table 61
indicates the reported use difficulty by disability type from the
Wireless RERC survey. All values in the table are percentages of
users indicating a particular use difficulty category. For users
with visual impairments, reading and manipulating the touchscreen
is an extremely difficult or impossible task. In addition, operating
the device often requires two hands, making simultaneous use of
some forms of assistive technology (e.g., a magnifier) impossible.
Users with upper-mobility impairments stated that the two-hand requirement
could usually be avoided by placing the device on a suitable surface.
Users who are deaf or hard of hearing reported difficulty in using
the PDA alerting function if the PDA does not support the vibrating
alert feature.
Table61: PDA Use Difficulty by Disability Type
Most users in the focus group reported that they were
reluctant to invest in a technology until the accessibility of the
product was sufficiently demonstrated.
Users are reluctant to invest in technologies that have an unproven
accessibility record.
Incremental increases in accessibility are unlikely to generate
large increases in sales within the disability community. Substantial
increases in accessibility will be required before increased sales
to members of the disabled community are realized.
Television. Most users found
televisions fairly easy to use. Table 62 indicates the reported
use difficulty by disability type from the Wireless RERC survey.
All values in the table are percentages of users indicating a particular
use difficulty category.
Table62: Television Use Difficulty by Disability Type
Users who are deaf or hard of hearing reported some
frustration with closed captioning services. Users complained that
captioning should be available on a greater proportion of programs
and wished that existing captioning would match audio content more
closely. Some remarked that accessibility could be improved by allowing
the user to select the size, color, style, and position of the captioning.
Users who are blind reported difficulty in interacting with on-screen
menus, using electronic program guides, and understanding some television
programming that is not audio described.
Some television accessibility features seem to have been implemented
without complete consideration of the needs of users. For example,
audio description services often provide descriptions that are not
necessary. One user recalled a movie where the sound of a door being
slammed was accompanied by a narrator’s voice saying that
a door was slammed. The slammed door was immediately apparent to
the user, so the narrator’s audio description was not necessary.
Accessibility solutions must consider the needs of the individual
with disabilities.
On-screen menus and electronic program guides are largely inaccessible
to people who are blind.
Rapid changes in technology often cause decreases in accessibility.
Satellite television providers rely on on-screen menus for channel
selection and device configuration. Many cable providers, as they
move toward digital television, also utilize electronic program
guides and complex on-screen menus. As a result, some television
receivers are becoming less accessible to users who are blind.
Voice Recognition. Users
had only limited experience with voice recognition technology. Most
users in the focus group who had experiences with natural language
voice recognition recalled accuracy problems and difficulties in
configuring the software. For these reasons, most considered this
technology a last resort, preferring the accuracy and ease of use
of the keyboard. Users who are deaf or hard of hearing found many
tasks associated with this technology difficult or impossible to
complete. Natural language voice recognition software has continued
to evolve, and software manufacturers have made great advances in
improving the accuracy and efficiency of the voice recognition algorithms;
however, users reported a reluctance to purchase additional software.
Users are reluctant to adopt technologies that have proven frustrating
in the past.
Voice recognition technology must mature before it will be considered
a viable option to replace keyboard input.
Section H: Product Analysis: Breakdown by Disability Groups
This section documents the results of a detailed product line analysis
for each of the product lines selected for study. The purpose of
this research is to document accessibility issues that prevent people
with disabilities from fully accessing the selected products and
to document accessibility features that are either currently offered
or could be offered by manufacturers.
The accessibility of a given product is based primarily on the determination
of access to core features of a product, with some consideration
for additional features that enhance the product but which are not
necessary for use of the product for its primary purpose. For the
purpose of this research, both accessible and universal design features
are considered. Accessible design is defined to be the design of
products such that they are accessible to people with disabilities
without requiring the purchase of additional equipment or specialized
training. Universal design, or design for inclusion, is the design
of products and environments to be usable by all people, to the
greatest extent possible, without the need for adaptation or specialized
design. A disability is considered any restriction or lack of ability
(resulting from an impairment) to perform an activity in the manner
or within the range of activity considered normal for a human being.
Under Section 508, when developing, procuring, maintaining, or using
electronic and information technology, each federal department or
agency, including the United States Postal Service (USPS), shall
ensure, unless an undue burden would be imposed, that the E&IT
allows, regardless of the type of medium of the technology, that—
- Federal employees with disabilities have access
to and use of information and data that is comparable to the access
to and use of the information and data by federal employees who
do not have disabilities.
- Individuals with disabilities who are members of
the public seeking information or services from a federal department
or agency have access to and use of information and data that
is comparable to the access to and use of the information and
data by such members of the public who are not disabled.In general,
Section 508 requires that products be available that are—
- Usable without visionUsable with low vision without
relying on audioUsable with little or no color perception
- Usable without hearing
- Usable with limited hearing
- Usable with limited manual dexterity, reach, and/or
strength
- Usable with time-dependent controls or displays
- Usable without speech Usable with limited cognitive
or memory abilities
- Usable with language or learning disabilities
- Available with audio cut-off (private listening)
- Designed to prevent visually induced seizures
- Available with biometric identification/activation
bypassing
- Usable with upper-extremity prosthetics
- Hearing aid compatible
- Usable from a wheelchair or similar personal vehicleAlso,
Section 508 requires compatibility with peripheral devices and
accessibility of information, documentation, labeling, and support
provided to customers. Section 508 provides guidelines for software
applications and operating systems, Web-based Internet information
and applications, telecommunications products, video and multimedia
products, self-contained closed products, desktop and portable
computers, and functional performance criteria.
Product designers should consider features that facilitate the following
capabilities: Users with visual impairments need to be able to identify,
differentiate, and operate all controls and displays, without accidentally
activating undesired controls; they should be able to detect control
activation and outcome; they should not be required to depend on
color to differentiate control and display states to successfully
use the device. Users who are deaf or hard of hearing need to be
able to acquire information via a nonauditory format, detect control
activation and outcome, and use assistive listening devices. Users
with mobility impairments need to be able to view, reach, and activate
all controls and displays; manipulate levers, drawers, panels, and
all controls; activate controls without accidentally activating
adjacent controls; activate controls with the use of an assistive
device; and have sufficient time to enter commands. Finally, users
with cognitive disabilities need to be able to understand the controls
and displays and have sufficient time to enter commands.
Product Line Assessment Methodology
The product line assessment provides an identification of accessibility
issues within each product line and an assessment of accessibility
features designed to address specific issues. The assessment of
accessibility issues involves the calculation of an “impact
score” for each issue and target population. The impact score
is an estimation of the effect of a particular accessibility issue
on a particular target population. The score is calculated at the
task level based on two separate dimensions. The first dimension,
task priority, is defined as a measure of task importance. High-priority
tasks are those that are essential to the device, and low-priority
tasks are defined as those that are not essential or that would
not be expected to be performed by the end-user. The second dimension,
accessibility, is defined as an estimation of the ability of a user
with a given set of functional capabilities and limitations to complete
a given task satisfactorily.
Task Priority
Tasks were prioritized based on an estimate of the essential or
core features of the device, versus advanced features, product enhancements,
and features related to device set-up and maintenance. There are
three levels of priority:
- PRIORITY 1—Core functionality
- PRIORITY 2—Secondary functionality
- PRIORITY 3—Set-up of maintenance
functionality
Priority 1 tasks must be able to be successfully completed, irrespective
of impairment, in order for the product to be usable for all users.
An inability to perform a priority 1 task because of an impairment
would likely severely limit the accessibility of the product under
evaluation for users with that impairment. Priority 2 tasks are
secondary tasks that may be performed on an occasional basis to
access advanced functionality. The inability to perform a priority
2 task because of an impairment, while not critical to the basic
use of the product, may negate the value of advanced features of
the product. Priority 3 tasks are tertiary tasks that are not necessarily
performed by all users of the device, but must be performable by
some operator on occasion. These tasks include initial set-up tasks
that are not ordinarily repeated, major troubleshooting tasks, and
major maintenance tasks that users are expected to perform, albeit
infrequently. The inability to perform a priority 3 task because
of an impairment would not affect the basic accessibility of the
product unless all users had the same impairment. Maintenance tasks
may be associated with any priority level. Some simple maintenance
tasks expected to be performed by the end-user, such as charging
a cell phone, are judged to be priority level 1. Most maintenance
tasks, however, are judged to be priority level 3.
Estimates of Accessibility
Each task was assigned an estimate of accessibility based on empirical
observations of similar tasks in the Accessibility Evaluation Facility
and expert judgment. Three levels of accessibility were considered:
- Little or no difficulty—Users
with a given set of functional limitations are likely to complete
the task.
- Some difficulty—Users with
a given set of functional limitations will experience some difficulty
in completing the task.
- Great difficulty—Users with
a given set of functional limitations are not likely to be able
to complete the task.
Impact Score Calculation
Accessibility impact score is an indicator of the importance of
a given accessibility issue for the overall accessibility of the
device. The accessibility impact scale reflects the joint influence
of task priority and accessibility level for tasks. Task priority
is the strongest component of the impact score. The accessibility
impact score for a given task is set by determining the task priority
(high, medium, and low) and accessibility level (likely, some difficulty,
and unlikely). Table 63 shows the accessibility impact score for
each combination of these three values.
Table63: Accessibility Impact Associations
As is indicated in the table, if a task is likely
to be able to be performed despite consideration of a given accessibility
issue, the accessibility impact of that issue is judged to be zero,
irrespective of the task priority. The highest impact score is defined
by a high-priority task that is not likely to be performed by the
user with a given impairment because of the given accessibility
issue. The lowest impact score is for a low-priority task that can
be performed with some difficulty. Between these two extremes, impact
scores at a given task-priority level differ by a factor of two
for Great Difficulty versus Some Difficulty. For a given accessibility
level, impact scores differ for task-priority levels by a factor
of four per level. The formula that was used to produce these values
is as follows:
I = P * L
Where I = accessibility impact
P = 16 for priority 1 tasks, 4 for priority 2 tasks, and 1 for priority
3 tasks
L = 0 for accessibility level “Little or no Difficulty,”
1 for accessibility level “Some Difficulty,” and 2 for
accessibility level “Great Difficulty”
The overall accessibility grade for a product line is an index of
the cumulative impact of all accessibility issues. The accessibility
grade is a letter grade on the familiar scale of A, B, C, D, and
F. The following definitions are offered for each grade:
A = Excellent accessibility. Users
with an impairment are generally able to make full use of the
product, with few limitations.
B = Good accessibility. Users with
an impairment are able to make good use of the product, but some
areas of product functionality are not accessible.
C = Fair accessibility. Users with
an impairment can access some of the functionality of the device,
but many aspects of product functionality are not accessible.
D = Poor accessibility. Users with
an impairment can make use of a small proportion of the functionality
of a device, but most aspects of product functionality are not
accessible.
F = Accessibility Failure. Users
with an impairment are generally not able to use the product.
The accessibility letter grades are assigned as follows:
- A—No impact scores above a 12
- B—One or two impact scores of 48, no impact
scores of 96
- C—Three or more impact scores of 48, no impact
scores of 96
- D—One or two impact scores of 96
- F—Three or more impact scores of 96
Product Line Assessments
The sections below describe the results of the product line assessments
for each of the six product lines: ATMs, cellular phones, distance
learning software, PDAs, televisions, and voice recognition software.
Each product line section will be organized as follows: background,
task-based accessibility analysis, accessibility features, compliance
with government regulations, and conclusions.
The task-based accessibility analysis consists of identifying the
core functionality (tasks) for the product line; identifying the
priority level for each task; and then for each task for each disability
type, assigning a task-accessibility estimation. The task accessibility
score is derived from expert evaluations, a Georgia Tech survey
on universal design, and user testing. The combination of the task-priority
levels and the task-accessibility estimation is used to calculate
an impact score, which is then used to create an accessibility grade
for the product line for each disability type.
ATMs
ATMs allow individuals to make transactions independently and privately
without requiring human interaction at times that are convenient
for the individual. They are used for banking purposes: making cash
withdrawals, making deposits, checking balances, and printing statements.
Eventually, they are likely to be used for transactions other than
banking, such as purchasing stamps or transit cards. Despite their
popularity and their capabilities, ATMs are not available to everyone.
People who have a visual disability may have difficulty reading
the display and providing accurate inputs. People who have a mobility
disability may have difficulty approaching the device, reaching
the controls, and reading the display. People who have a cognitive
disability may have difficulty reading the display and understanding
the options. Each of these challenges can be overcome, to some extent
through proper design.
Task-Based Accessibility Analysis
The core functionality considered to be necessary to effectively
use an ATM consists of the following:
- Locating an ATM
- Locating an accessible ATM
- Inserting the bank card
- Remembering a PIN
- Entering a PIN
- Making a cash withdrawal
- Making a deposit
- Checking account balances
- Transferring money
- Printing a statement
- Retrieving a receipt
- Retrieving the bank card
- Reading a receipt
People may have difficulty accomplishing these basic tasks, depending
on functional limitations resulting in an impairment, environmental
or situational factors that create barriers, and the design of the
ATM. Accessibility issues for each disability population are identified,
along with an impact rating for each issue. The disability populations
include people who have an impairment resulting from environmental
or situational factors.
Low Vision
Individuals with low vision may be unable to use an ATM or portions
of the core functionality for one or more of the following reasons:
They cannot read printed materials (receipts) because transaction
records are not available in alternative formats or they are not
printed with adequate foreground/background contrast. They cannot
locate or identify controls, because button labels are small, not
all labeling on mechanical buttons has contrast (e.g., recessed
labels), auditory/voice output is not available, they cannot read
text on the screen (glare, no large print option, or no contrast
adjustment), or they have difficulty determining how options map
to controls because they are not well aligned. They may have difficulty
receiving visual information, because the screen text is small with
no large print option, there is no or inadequate contrast adjustment,
or auditory/voice output is not available or auditory indicators
are not easily differentiable (for retrieval of ATM card, cash,
receipt, etc.).
Table 64 lists the tasks identified as important for ATM use. For
each task, the priority is given, along with a task accessibility
score and the resulting impact score. The tasks are arranged according
to impact score.
Table64: Derivation of Impact for Low-Vision ATM Users
Individuals who have low vision may have difficulty
locating an accessible ATM because the machines are not widespread
or they are not available through their banking institutions. They
may have difficulty inserting the bank card because they cannot
find the slot or are not sure which slot to use. Difficulty for
the high-impact tasks of entering a PIN, making a cash withdrawal
or deposit, checking account balances, transferring money, and printing
a statement may result because of the use of small print, insufficient
contrast, or glare. Users with low vision will have difficulty reading
the receipt because it is not available in large print and often
has poor contrast.
Blind
Individuals who are blind may be unable to use an ATM or portions
of the core functionality for one or more of the following reasons:
They cannot read printed materials (instruction manuals) because
documentation is not available in alternative formats. They cannot
locate or identify controls because documentation is not available
in alternative formats, Braille is not available on buttons, auditory/voice
output is unavailable, there is no nib on the “5” key,
or mapping of options is not standardized across ATM devices (for
a given bank). They cannot read text on the screen, receive graphics
and video information or visual alerts and signals, or verify the
transaction because auditory/voice output is unavailable. They have
difficulty inserting the ATM card or the deposit envelope because
the slots are not differentiable by touch or the proper orientation
cannot be determined.
Table 65 lists the tasks identified as important for ATM use. For
each task, the priority is given, along with a task accessibility
score and the resulting impact score. The tasks are arranged according
to impact score.
Table65: Derivation of Impact for ATM Users Who Are
Blind
Note that this analysis is based on an evaluation
of ATMs without talking features. Talking ATMs may greatly improve
accessibility for people who are blind. Individuals who are blind
may have difficulty locating an accessible ATM because the machines
are not widespread or they are not available through their banking
institutions. They may have difficulty locating any ATM because
the machines are always in different locations at banking institutions
and other public facilities. Individuals who are blind may have
difficulty making a deposit, transferring money, printing a statement,
entering a PIN, making a cash withdrawal, and checking account balances
because there is no audio output, they cannot read the screens,
and screens vary from one ATM to another, preventing memorization.
People who are blind cannot read an ATM receipt because it is only
available in print. Those who are blind may have difficulty inserting
the bank card because they cannot find the slots or the slots are
not differentiated by tactile indicators. Retrieving the receipt
and bank card may be difficult because the locations vary by machine
and it may take some extra time to feel around the ATM to find the
items to retrieve.
Hard of Hearing
Individuals who are hard of hearing may be unable to use an ATM
or portions of the core functionality for one or more of the following
reasons: They cannot receive acoustic alerts and signals because
volume level is not adequately adjustable, alerts for different
things are not differentiable by tone or frequency level, or alerts
are not available in either a visual or tactile format.
Table 66 lists the tasks identified as important for ATM use. For
each task, the priority is given, along with a task accessibility
score and the resulting impact score. The tasks are arranged according
to impact score.
Table66: Derivation of Impact for Hard-of-Hearing ATM
Users
Users who are hard of hearing should have little difficulty
using an ATM, though they may not benefit from the auditory reminders
for bank card and money retrieval.
Deaf
Individuals who are deaf may be unable to use an ATM or portions
of the core functionality for one or more of the following reasons:
They are unable to receive any auditory information because alerts
are not available in either a visual or a tactile format.
Table 67 lists the tasks identified as important for ATM use. For
each task, the priority is given, along with a task accessibility
score and the resulting impact score. The tasks are arranged according
to impact score.
Table67: Derivation of Impact for ATM Users Who Are
Deaf
Users who are deaf should have little difficulty using
an ATM, though they may not benefit from the auditory reminders
for bank card and money retrieval.
Upper Mobility
Individuals who have an upper-mobility impairment may be unable
to use an ATM or portions of the core functionality for one or more
of the following reasons: They have difficulty making inputs because
the force required to activate the controls is too great, or voice
recognition is not available, or they cannot reach the controls
(because inputs are not mapped to the numeric keypad or machine
height is not standardized for a given bank). They have difficulty
inserting the ATM card or the deposit envelope because of the precision,
arm movement, or force required. They have difficulty retrieving
transaction items such as envelopes, money, receipts, or ATM cards,
because simultaneous actions are required (e.g., lifting envelope
lid and removing envelope), the object for retrieval does not protrude
enough to grasp, the force required to release the item is too great,
or they cannot retrieve the item within the allotted time.
Table 68 lists the tasks identified as important for ATM use. For
each task, the priority is given, along with a task accessibility
score and the resulting impact score. The tasks are arranged according
to impact score.
Table68: Derivation of Impact for Upper-Mobility Impaired
ATM Users
Users with upper-mobility impairments have difficulty
locating accessible ATMs because while there are guidelines, there
is no standard height or configuration for placing ATMs. Some, but
not all, ATMs allow equivalent inputs via the number pad, and the
keys adjacent to the display may be difficult for people with limited
reach to access. Talking ATMs may increase the accessibility for
some upper-mobility impaired users, but talking ATMs are not widespread
and are not available at all banking institutions. Voice display
controlled ATMs are typically controlled through the keypad or other
simplified control mechanisms. The idea is that the primary beneficiaries
of the voice display (those without vision) should have the benefit
of a centralized control that is easy to find and use. Users with
upper mobility impairment may benefit from the voice display simplified
control as well because the controls (typically the keypad) are
easier to reach and operate. All other tasks rated a high impact—inserting
the bank card, entering a PIN, making a cash withdrawal, making
a deposit, checking account balances, transferring money, printing
a statement, retrieving a receipt, and retrieving the bank card
may be difficult because of the reach requirements and, in some
cases, because of the force requirements to activate the controls.
Some people with upper-mobility impairments may also have difficulty
retrieving items and inserting the bank card because of the need
to grasp the items.
Lower Mobility
Users with lower-mobility impairments may be unable to use an ATM
or portions of the core functionality for one or more of the following
reasons: They have difficulty locating or identifying controls because
they cannot read text on the screen (glare or no contrast adjustment),
or they have difficulty determining how options map to controls
because they are not well aligned or are aligned from the perspective
of a standing person. They have difficulty making inputs because
they cannot reach the control panel (from a wheelchair or similar
device) because of the machine configuration or physical obstacles,
or height is not standardized (for a given bank). They cannot receive
visual information, because of either glare on the screen or orientation
of the screen with respect to their lower perspective.
Table 69 lists the tasks identified as important for ATM use. For
each task, the priority is given, along with a task accessibility
score and the resulting impact score. The tasks are arranged according
to impact score.
Table69: Derivation of Impact for Lower-Mobility Impaired
ATM Users
Users with lower-mobility impairments have difficulty
locating accessible ATMs because, although there are guidelines,
there is no standard height or configuration for placing ATMs. Not
all ATMs have knee space for seated individuals. While an ATM itself
may be within the height guidelines, the height of the controls
and display vary across machines and may be too high to reach or
see from a seated position. Glare is a problem for many people in
a seated position, as is determination of alignment of menu options
with controls. The remaining high impact tasks—inserting the
bank card, entering a PIN, making a cash withdrawal, making a deposit,
checking account balances, transferring money, printing a statement,
retrieving a receipt, and retrieving the bank card—may all
be difficult because of reach limitations.
Cognitive
Users with cognitive disabilities may be unable to use an ATM or
portions of the core functionality for one or more of the following
reasons: They may have trouble reading text or interpreting graphics
presented on the screen, either because the graphical metaphors
or the language is too complex, or because verbal output is unavailable.
They may have difficulty entering information because they do not
understand how the options map to the controls.
Table 70 lists the tasks identified as important for ATM use. For
each task, the priority is given, along with a task accessibility
score and the resulting impact score. The tasks are arranged according
to impact score.
Table70: Derivation of Impact for ATM Users Who Have
a Cognitive Disability
Individuals who have a cognitive disability may have
difficulty remembering a PIN because of reduced memory function
or confusion of one PIN with another security code they may need
to use. They may have difficulty making a cash withdrawal or deposit,
checking account balances, transferring money, or printing a statement
because of limited reading ability and comprehension or lack of
clarity in instructions or menu options.
Accessibility Features
A review of various ATM manufacturers’ marketing data identified
a number of features identified as accessible design components.
Each of these components is listed, along with a description of
the component and an assessment of the usefulness of the feature
for disability groups. Some of these features may have been designed
with a particular disability population in mind; others may have
been designed simply as desirable features. In many cases, the accessibility
features benefit or are used by a variety of people, and they may
be considered to provide universal access.
Large, sunlight-readable color
display: ATM displays can be very difficult for the average
person to use simply because of lighting issues, natural or otherwise.
Sunlight often creates glare on electronics displays, sometimes
making it impossible to even discern that any text appears on
the display. In some cases this can be overcome by shifting the
viewing orientation, but this is not an option for all people.
These sunlight-readable displays can increase accessibility by
preventing glare. With the exception of people who are blind,
this will have a medium impact for all users and will help solve
the issue of not being able to receive visual information.
Touchscreen displays: Touchscreens
allow the manufacturer to present a dynamic display, providing
more information in less space. Touchscreens can be designed with
large, high-contrast buttons or icons, which can provide an alternative
solution for those with partial visual impairment or with motor
disabilities. Selection via large touch areas on the screen may
be preferable to some users as an alternative to keyboard or function-key
input. Additionally, for users with complete vision loss, touchscreen
functions can be mapped—or directed—down to the tactile
keyboard. But unless the functions are mapped in this way, or
an alternate audio interface is provided, touchscreens are not
accessible to people who are blind. If implemented in design,
touchscreens will have a high negative impact for people who are
blind, unless keyboard mapping or an alternative audio interface
is also provided, in which case they will have no impact. They
will have a medium impact for those with low vision and mobility
impairments if implemented with large touch areas and text or
graphics. If good graphical metaphors are used, touchscreens will
have a medium positive impact for people who have a cognitive
disability. It will help solve the issue of making inputs and
possibly of receiving and interpreting visual information.
Talking ATM: A talking ATM is
one with voice displays. Talking ATMs are useful in circumstances
in which it is difficult to read the text display because of a
visual impairment, low reading ability, significant glare on the
screen, or possibly having to view the screen from a seated position.
Inclusion in design will have a high impact for those who are
blind, a medium impact for those with low vision or cognitive
disability, and a low impact for all other users. It will help
solve the issue of receiving and interpreting visual information.
Private headphone jacks for talking
ATMs: Voice instructions can be provided publicly or privately
through use of headphones. Voice instructions can help guide the
user through the transaction and provide information such as feedback
on keypress entries and account balance (things that would typically
be presented visually). This would allow a person who is blind
to perform an ATM transaction independently; however, it is likely
that audio feedback would not be available for PIN entry for security
reasons, which would probably only inconvenience the user and
not prevent use of the ATM. Implementation in design will have
a high impact for people who are blind, a medium positive impact
for users with low vision, and a neutral impact for other users.
Choice of private audio will help solve the issues of not being
able to receive visual information.
Mapping of the function keys to
the keypad: This is a software feature that allows the
function keys that are at the side of the ATM display to be mapped,
or directed, down to the keyboard. This means that the user can
perform the entire transaction from the keyboard, which minimizes
the extent a user has to stretch to reach the keys. It also assists
people who are blind by providing a more familiar key layout to
use for input. Function key mapping will have a medium impact
for people who are blind and people who have upper- or lower-mobility
impairments, and a neutral impact for all others. It will help
solve the issues of not being able to locate or identify controls
and not being able to make inputs.
Raised tactile symbols:
Raised tactile symbols help those with visual impairments, particularly
people who are blind, distinguish keys that most people differentiate
through a text label or graphic. In some cases, these symbols
may include a Braille keypad, though Braille proficiency is not
widespread. Other alternatives include protruding key tips, which
enable the visually impaired to feel the edge of individual keys
and so determine the end of one key and the start of another,
and increased character size, to assist those with visual impairments.
Implementation in design will have a neutral impact for most users,
but a medium impact for those who are vision impaired. It will
help solve the issue of not being able to locate and identify
controls.
Raised area (nib) on the “5”
key: A nib is a raised area that serves to help users identify
the location of the center of the keypad. Given a standard telephone
keypad layout with the addition of nonnumeric keys, the nib helps
the user (particularly the user with a visual impairment) to find
the “5” key, from which the remaining numeric keys
can be easily identified. Inclusion in design will have a high
impact for users who are blind, a medium impact for those with
low vision, and a neutral impact for other users. It will help
solve the issue of not being able to locate and identify controls.
Keys on the keypad that are discernible
by touch: Tactile separators typically provide either raised
or indented spaces between controls to assist in tactile differentiation
of numeric keys from other keys. Inclusion in design will have
a high impact for those who are blind, a medium impact for those
with upper-mobility impairments, and a low impact for all others.
It will help solve the issue of not being able to locate and identify
controls and not being able to make accurate inputs.
Tactile feedback keypad:
Tactile feedback results from the keys springing back to position
once pressed, indicating that a key has been pressed and input
accepted. Touchscreens, for example, do not have tactile feedback.
Inclusion in design will have a high impact for people who are
blind, a medium positive impact for those with low vision, and
a low impact for other users.
User-controllable playback speed:
User-controllable speed allows the user to make adjustments to
auditory output to meet information processing needs. Visual output
tends to be available until the next selection is made, but auditory
output is temporal, and user-control allows review of information
as needed. This is particularly beneficial to people who are blind
and perhaps some users with low vision or cognitive disabilities.
Implementation in design will have a medium positive impact for
people who are blind and a low impact for other users. It will
help solve the issue of difficulty receiving auditory information.
User-controllable volume: Volume
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