[0] U.S. Department of Transportation, Bureau of Transportation Statistics. Transportation difficulties keep over half a million at home. Retrieved April 2006; January 2008, from www.bts.gov/publications/issue_briefs/number_03/html/transportation_difficulties_keep_over_half_a_million_disabled_at_home.html.
[1] Skoto, B., et al. (2006, January). Creating an economic future for adults with Down syndrome: An analysis of Social Security and Medicaid regulations. Commissioned by Madeleine Will, National Down Syndrome Society (NDSS).
[2] National Organization on Disability. (2000). 2000 N.O.D./Harris survey of Americans with disabilities (Study No. 12384). New York: Author.
[3] National Council on Disability (NCD). (2005, November). The Social Security Administration’s Efforts to Promote Employment for People with Disabilities: New Solutions for Old Problems. Washington, DC. Author.
[4] NCD. (2007, October 1). Empowerment for Americans with disabilities: Breaking barriers to careers and full employment.
[5] NCD. (1997, September 24). Removing barriers to work: Action proposals for the 105th Congress.
[6] Beaulaurier, R. (2001). The financial vulnerability of people with disabilities: Assessing poverty risks. Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare, 28(1), 139–162.
[7] Webster’s Unabridged Dictionary (p. 966). (2001). (2nd ed.). Random House: New York.
[8] Levitt, D., & Dubner, S. (2005). Freakonomics: A Rogue Economist Explores the Hidden Side of Everything. New York: William Morrow.
[9] Ibid.
[10] Solomon, J. (2005, December 26). Companies not seeking AIDS cure. Deposition of Dr. Edmund Tramont, AIDS Director, National Institutes of Health. Associated Press, Valley News.
[11] Ibid.
[12] Ibid.
[13] Smith, R., et al. (2005, December). The long-term budget outlook. Washington, DC: Congress of the United States, Congressional Budget Office.
[14] NCD. (2005, December). The state of 21st century long-term services and supports (LTSS): Financing and systems reform for Americans with disabilities. www.ncd.gov/newsroom/publications/2005/longterm_services.htm.
[15] Pew Center on the States. (2006). Special report on Medicaid 2006: Bridging the gap between care and cost. www.pewcenteronthestates.org.
[16] NCD. (2005, December).
[17] U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO). (2005). Federal disability assistance: Wide array of programs need to be examined in light of 21st century challenges. GAO-05-626. Washington, DC: GAO.
[18] Ibid.
[19] Gist, J. R., & Verma, S. (2002). Entitlement spending and the economy: Past trends and future projects. Washington, DC: AARP, Public Policy Institute.
[20] Peterson, P. G. (1999). The age wave. New York: Time Books, Random House.
[21] Peterson, P. G. (1996). Will America grow up before it grows old? New York: Random House.
[22] Gist & Verma. (2002).
[23] Peterson, J. P., & Howe, N. (1988). On borrowed time: How the growth in entitlement spending threatens America’s future (p. 79). San Francisco: Institute for Contemporary Studies.
[24] Gist & Verma. (2002).
[25] Ibid., p. 7.
[26] Gist & Verma. (2002).
[27] Ibid. Please review pp. 8–9 of Gist & Verma for more in-depth analysis of the “expanded income” definition used as well as figures 6 and 7 for distribution of federal spending entitlements by income class, 65+ population, and the year 2000.
[28] Ibid.
[29] Ibid.
[30] Shackleton, R., & Foertsch, T. (2005). Global population aging in the 21st century and its economic implications. Washington, DC: Congress of the United States, Congressional Budget Office.
[31] Ibid.
[32] Ibid.
[33] Gist & Verma. (2002).
[34] U.S. Census Bureau, U.S. Department of Commerce Economics and Statistics Administration. (2005, July). Disability and American families: 2000 (p. 6).
[35] U.S. Census Bureau. (2003, March). Disability status: 2000 (p. 10). Census 2000 Brief. C2KBR-17.
[36] Burke, V. W., Gabe, T., & Falk, G. (2005). Children in poverty: Profile, trends and issues. CRS Report for Congress, RL 32682. Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service, Library of Congress.
[37] Based on the noninstitutionalized population ages five and older.
[38] U.S. Census Bureau. (2005, July).
[39] Ibid. For example, in Mississippi, 4.8 percent of people reported a sensory disability, compared to a national rate of 3.6 percent; 11.3 percent reported a physical disability, compared to a national rate of 8.2 percent; and 6.4 percent reported a mental disability, compared to a national rate of 4.8 percent.
[40] Ibid.
[41] Ibid.
[42] Ibid.
[43] Jezewski, M. A., & Sotnik, P. (2001). Culture brokering: Providing culturally competent rehabilitation services to foreign-born persons. Buffalo, NY: Center for International Rehabilitation Research Information and Exchange (CIRRIE), State University of New York, University at Buffalo.
[44] Michigan Policy Institute. (2004, October). Immigration facts: Legal immigration to U.S. still declining. No. 9.
[45] Lindert, P. H. (2005). Growing public: Social spending and economic growth since the eighteenth century. New York: Cambridge University Press.
[46] Smith, R., et al. (2005, December).
[47] The President’s Budget. (2006, February 7). www.whitehouse.gov/omb/budget/fy2008/budget.html.
[48] Lindert. (2005).
[49] Longman, P. (1996). The return of thrift: How the coming collapse of the middle-class welfare state will reawaken values in America. New York: Free Press.
[50] Keith, R. (2005). Budget reconciliation legislation in 2005 (p. 8). Congressional Research Report for Congress, RL 33132. Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service, Library of Congress.
[51] Office of Management and Budget. (2005, February 7). Budget of the United States government, FY 2006, Historical Tables, Table 7.3 (pp. 121–24).
[52] U.S. National Debt Clock (2008) The Outstanding Public Debt as of January 14, 2008, at 04:41:17 PM GMT was $9,203,960,254,308.93. The National Debt has continued to increase an average of $1.48 billion per day since September 29, 2006. Retrieved January 14, 2008, from http://www.brillig.com/debt_clock/
[53] The President’s Budget (2006, February 7).
[54] Ibid.
[55] Ibid.
[56] Ibid.
[57] Hartnett, J. H., & Morris, M. (2005). A new model for community economic development and individual and family asset building for persons with disabilities. National Disability Institute and NCB Development Corporation.
[58] Smith et al. (2005, December).
[59] Ibid.
[60] Lindert. (2005).
[61] Ibid.
[62] Ibid., p. 15.
[63] GAO. (2005). GAO-05-626.
[64] Woo, L. G., Schweke, F. W., & Buchholz, D. E. (2004). Hidden in plain sight: A look at the $335 billion federal asset-building budget (p. 4). Washington, DC: Corporation for Enterprise Development.
[65] Ibid., p. 1.
[66] Ibid., p. 12.
[67] Ibid., p. 1.
[68] Corporate income tax rates: International comparisons. (2005, November). Washington, DC: Congress of the United States, Congressional Budget Office.
[69] Peterson & Howe. (1988).
[70] Charlton, J. I. (1998). Nothing about us without us: Disability oppression and empowerment (p. 153). Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.
[71] Minow, M. (1997). Making all the difference. Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press.
[72] Parrish, T. (1993). State funding provisions and least restrictive environment: Implications for federal policy. CSEF Brief #2. Palo Alto, CA: Center for Special Education Finance. Parrish, T. (1995). Criteria for effective special education funding formulas. Palo Alto, CA: Center for Special Education Finance. Parrish, T. (1995). Fiscal issues related to the inclusion of students with disabilities. CSEF Brief #7. Palo Alto, CA: Center for Special Education Finance.
[73] Rea, P., & Davis-Dorsey, J. (2004). ADA in the public school setting: Practitioners’ reflections. Journal of Disability Policy Studies, 15, 66–69.
[74] U.S. Department of Education. (2000). Twenty-second annual report to Congress on the implementation of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. Washington, DC: Author.
[75] Apling, R., & Jones, N. (2005). The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA): Interactions with selected provisions of the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLBA). Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service, Library of Congress.
[76] U.S. Department of Education. (2000). Annual Report to Congress on the Implementation of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. Washington, DC: Author.
[77] Martin, E., Martin, R. & Terman, D. (1996, Spring). The Legislative and Litigation History of Special Education. Special Education for Students with Disabilities 6(1). Princeton University & Brookings Institute. www.futureofchildren.org/pubs-info2825/pubs-info_show.htm?doc_id=72440.
[78] U.S. Department of Education. (2006, October 30). Annual Report to Congress on the Implementation of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. Washington, DC: Author.
[79] U.S. Census Bureau. (2003, March).
[80] Ramirez, A. (2003). The shifting sands of school finance. Educational Leadership, 60(4), 54–57.
[81] Apling, R. (2005). Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA): Current funding trends. Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service, Library of Congress.
[82] Irwin, P. (2006). K–12 education programs: Recent appropriations. Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service, Library of Congress.
[83] Chambers, J., Perez, M., Socias, M. , Shkolnik, J., and Esra, P. (2004, May). Educating students with disabilities: Comparing methods for explaining expenditure variation. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education Programs (OSEP).
[84] Chambers, J., Parrish, T., & Harr, J. (2004). What are we spending on special education services in the United States, 1999–2000? Palo Alto, CA: Center for Special Education Finance.
[85] Ibid.
[86] Kidd, J. (1958). Special education: Fulfillment of a promise. Elementary School Journal, 58, 454–56.
[87] Birman, B., & Porter, A. (2002). Evaluating the effectiveness of educational funding streams. Peabody Journal of Education, 77(4), 59–85.
[88] Chambers, et al (2004). Note that data from the Special Education Expenditure Project (SEEP) show the cost of providing services to students with disabilities at approximately twice the cost of education for a student without disabilities (averaging more than $12,000 vs. $6,556).
[89] Apling & Jones. (2005).
[89] Irwin, P. (2006).
[90] Kusler, M. (2003). The imperative of fully funding IDEA. School Administrator, 60(3), 47.
[91] Greene, J., & Forster, G. (2002). Effects of funding incentives on special education enrollment. New York: Manhattan Institute for Policy Research.
[92] Ibid.
[93] Pijl, S., & Dyson, A. (1998). Funding special education: A three-country study of demand-oriented models. Comparative Education, 34, 261–79.
[94] NCD. (2003). School vouchers and students with disabilities. Washington, DC: Author.
[95] NCD. (1995). Making Schools Work for All of America’s Children. Washington, DC: Author.
[96] Parrish, T. (1993). Parrish, T. (1996). Special education finance: Past, present, and future. CSEF Brief #8. Palo Alto, CA: Center for Special Education Finance.
[97] O’Reilly, F. (1995). State special education funding formulas and the use of separate placements for students with disabilities: Exploring linkages. CSEF Brief #7. Palo Alto, CA: Center for Special Education Finance.
[98] NCD. (1995).
[99] McLaughlin, M., & Warren, S. (1994). Resource implications of inclusion: Impressions of special education administrators at selected sites. CSEF Policy Paper #1. Palo Alto, CA: Center for Special Education Finance.
[100] GAO. GAO-05-626.
[101] GAO. (1999). Medicaid and special education: Coordination of services for children with disabilities is evolving. GAO/HEHS Report GAO-00-20. Washington, DC: Author.
[102] NCD, Youth Advisory Committee. (2003, September 15). Students with Disabilities Face Financial Aid Barriers College and Graduate Students Share Their Stories and Policy Recommendations. Washington, DC: Author.
[103] GAO. (2005). Individuals with Disabilities Education Act: Education should provide additional guidance to help states smoothly transition children to preschool. GAO-06-26. Washington, DC: Author.
[104] NCD. (1994). Inclusionary education for students with disabilities: Keeping the promise. Washington, DC: Author.
[105] U.S. Department of Education. (2000).
[106] Apling & Jones. (2005).
[107] Livingston, A., & Wirt, J. (2005). The condition of education 2005 in brief. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics. Swanson, C. (2004). Who graduates? Who doesn’t? A statistical portrait of public high school graduation, class of 2001. Washington, DC: Urban Institute Education Policy Institute.
[108] American Youth Policy Forum and Center on Education Policy. (2002). Twenty-five years of educating children with disabilities: The good news and the work ahead. Washington, DC: Author.
[109] U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education Programs. (2003) The 25th Annual Report to Congress on the Implementation of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, Vol.1, Section 1 (2003) Washington, DC: Author.
[110] Livingston & Wirt. (2005).
[111] SEELS Appendix A, August 11, 2004, Info and Reports, SRI International. (2004).
[112] Barton, P. (2003). Parsing the achievement gap: Baselines for tracking progress. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service. Barton, P. (2004). Why does the gap persist? Educational Leadership, 62(3), 8–13.
[113] Barton, P. (2004). Why does the gap persist? Educational Leadership, 62(3), 8–13.
[114] Wells, T., Sandefur, G., & D. Hogan. (2003). What happens after the high school years among young persons with disabilities? Social Forces, 82, 803–32.
[115] President’s Committee for People with Intellectual Disabilities. (2004). A charge we have to keep: A road map to personal and economic freedom for people with intellectual disabilities in the 21st century. Washington, DC: Author.
[116]Ibid.
[117] U.S. General Accountability Office. (2003, July). Special education: Federal actions can assist states in improving postsecondary outcomes for youth. (GAO report GAO-03-773). Washington, DC: Author.
[118] Youth Advisory Committee of the National Council on Disability. (2003). Students with disabilities face financial aid barriers: College and graduate students share their stories and policy recommendations. Washington, DC: National Council on Disability.
[119] Furney, K., Hasazi, S., & Clark-Keefe, K. (2005). Multiple dimensions of reform: The impact of state policies on special education and supports for all students. Journal of Disability Policy Studies, 16, 169–76.
[120] Furney, K., Hasazi, S., Clark-Keefe, K., & Hartnett, J. (2003). A longitudinal analysis of shifting policy landscapes in special and general education reform. Exceptional Children, 70, 81–94.
[121] Kosciulek, J. (2004). Research applications of the Longitudinal Study of the Vocational Rehabilitation Services Program. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin, 47(3), 173–80.
[122] Berry, H. G., Price-Ellingstad, D., Halloran, W., & Finch, T. (2000). Supplemental Security Income and vocational rehabilitation for transition-age individuals with disabilities. Journal of Disability Policy Studies, 10(2), 151–65.
[123] Blanck, P., Schartz, H. A., & Schartz, K. (2003). Labor force participation and income of individuals with disabilities in sheltered and competitive employment: Cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses of seven states during the 1980s and 1990s. William and Mary Law Review, 44, 1029ff.
[124] Cimera, R. E. (2000). Improving the cost efficiency of supported employment programs. Journal of Disability Policy Studies, 11(3), 145–51.
[125] Lee, D. Y., Yoo, B. J., & Peters, R. (2003). Cost-benefit analysis of a supported employment program: An experience in Korea. Journal of Rehabilitation, 69(1), 46–52.
[126] Kosciulek. (2004).
[127] Tashjian, M. D., & Schmidt-Davis, H. (2000, April). Vocational rehabilitation experiences among individuals who achieved a supported employment outcome. A longitudinal study of the Vocational Rehabilitation Services Program. Final Report. Research Triangle Institute, Contractor. Retrieved on December 21, 2005, from www.ilr.cornell.edu/ped/lsvrsp.
[128] Mashaw, J., Reno, V., Burkhauser, R., & Berkowitz, M. (1997). Disability, work, and cash benefits. Industrial and Labor Relations Review, 50(4), 690–692.
[129] Ticket To Work And Work Incentives Advisory Panel. Advice report to the Congress and the commissioner of the Social Security Administration: The crisis in EN participation—A blueprint for action. Retrieved January 9, 2008, from http://www.ssa.gov/work/panel/panel_documents/reports.html.
[130] GAO. (2005). Social Security Administration: Better planning could make the Ticket Program more effective. GAO-05-248. Washington, DC: Author.
[131] Social Policy Research Associates. (2004). FY 2002 WIASRD [Workforce Investment Act Standardized Record Data] Data Book. Oakland, CA: Social Policy Research Associates. Thomas, D. F., Menz, F. E., & Rosenthal, D. A. (2001). Employment outcome expectancies: Consensus among consumers, providers, and funding agents of community rehabilitation programs. Journal of Rehabilitation, 67(3), 26–34.
[132] Holcomb, P., & Barnow, B. (2004). Serving people with disabilities through the Workforce Investment Act’s One-Stop Career Centers. Washington, DC: Urban Institute.
[133] Morris, M. (2005, November). Disability Program Navigator initiative: DPN evaluation plan. Printed copy of PowerPoint presentation. Washington, DC: National Disability Institute.
[134] Ibid.
[135] Berry, H., D. Price-Ellingstad, W. Halloran, and T. Finch. (2000). Supplemental Security Income and vocational rehabilitation: Early work experiences among transition-age individuals with disabilities. Journal of Disability Policy Studies 10(2): 151–165.
[136] Hergenrather, K. C., Rhodes, S. C., McDaniel, R. S., & Brown, C. D. (2003). Job placement: The development of theory-based measures. The Journal of Rehabilitation, 69(4), 27–35.
[137] Congressional Budget Office (CBO). (2004). Disability and retirement: The early exit of baby boomers from the labor force. Washington, DC: Author.
[138] SSA work incentives enrollment, 1990–2004. (2005). Data Note #3. Boston: Institute for Community Inclusion, University of Massachusetts-Boston. www.StateData.info.
[139] GAO. (1996). PASS program: SSA work incentive for disabled beneficiaries poorly managed. GAO/HEHS-96-51. Washington, DC: Author.
[140] Greenstein, R. (2005). The Earned Income Tax Credit: Boosting employment, aiding the working poor. Washington, DC: Committee on Budget and Program Priorities. Retrieved December 21, 2005, from www.cbpp.org/7-19-05eic.htm.
[141] Johnson, N. (2001). A hand up: How state Earned Income Tax Credits help working families escape poverty in 2001. Washington, DC: Center on Budget and Policy Priorities.
[142] Internal Revenue Service (IRS). (2003, February 25). Retirement savings contributions credit. Tax Tip 2003-40. Retrieved February 3, 2006, from www.irs.gov/newsroom.
[143] Burkhauser, R. V., Glenn, A. J., & Wittenberg, D. C. (1997). The Disabled Worker Tax Credit. In Reno, V. P., Mashaw, J. L., & Gradison, B. (1997), Disability: Challenges for social insurance, health care financing and labor market policy. Washington, DC: National Academy of Social Insurance (available through Brookings Institution Press).
[144] Hill, M. L., Ruth, D. J., Banks, P.D., Troxell, J.L., Carlson, R. M., Hine, M. J., & Jones, S.W. (2003). WorkWORLD benefit planning decision support system: Assisting people with disabilities to find earnings and work incentive solutions to low income and health care problems while benefiting taxpayers and government policy implementers. Employment Support Institute, Virginia Commonwealth University. Retrieved April 18, 2005, from www.workworld.org. Ruth, D. (1996). WorkWORLD as a policy analysis tool. Employment Support Institute, Virginia Commonwealth University. Retrieved April 18, 2005, from www.workworld.org.
[145] Levine, L. (2005). The Work Opportunity Tax Credit (WOTC) and the Welfare-to-Work Tax Credit (WtW). RL30089. Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service. Retrieved December 19, 2005, from www.opencrs.com.
[146] GAO. (2001). Work Opportunity Tax Credit: Employers do not appear to dismiss employees to increase tax credits. GAO-01-329. Washington, DC: Author. GAO. (2002). Business tax incentives: Incentives to employ workers with disabilities receive limited use and have an uncertain impact. GAO-03-39. Washington, DC: Author.
[147] Sherraden, M. (1991). Assets and the poor: A new American welfare policy. New York: M.E. Sharpe. Sherraden, M. (2000). Asset building policy and programs for the poor. St. Louis, MO: Center for Social Development, Washington University.
[148] Leydorf, D., & Kaplan, D. (2001). Use of Individual Development Accounts by people with disabilities: Barriers and solutions. Policy Brief. Oakland, CA: World Institute on Disability.
[149] Committee on Transportation and Infrastructure, Subcommittee on Education and the Workforce, Joint Hearing on Coordinating Human Services Transportation. May 2003. www.house.gov/transportation/fullhearings/05-01-03/05-01-03memo.html.
[150] GAO. (2003, May 1). Transportation-disadvantaged populations: Many federal programs fund transportation services, but obstacles to coordination persist. Testimony before the committees on Transportation and Infrastructure and Education and the Workforce. House of Representatives.
[151] Ibid.
[152] Ibid.
[153] U.S. Department of Labor. (2002). Tax incentives for providing business accessibility. http://www.dol.gov/odep/pubs/fact/tifpba.htm
[154] Ibid.
[155] 49 U.S.C. §41705. 42 CFR §382 (1986).
[156] NCD. (2003). National disability policy: A progress report. www.ncd.gov/newsroom/publications/2003/progressreport_final.htm.
[157] Ibid.
[158] Ibid.
[159] Ibid.
[160] Ibid.
[161] Foley, D. J., Heimovitz, H. K., Guralnik, J. M., & Brock, D. B. (2002). Driving life expectancy of persons aged 70 years and older in the United States. American Journal of Public Health, 92(8), 1284–1289.
[162] GAO. (2004, August 30). Transportation- disadvantaged seniors: Efforts to enhance senior mobility could benefit from additional guidance and information. GAO-04-971. Washington, DC: Author. www.gao.gov/new.items/d04971.pdf.
[163] Ibid.
[164] NOD. (2000, May). N.O.D./Harris 2000 survey of Americans with disabilities. www.nod.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=page.viewPage&pageID=1430&nodeID=1&FeatureID=609&redirected=1&CFID=4041484&CFTOKEN=2142693.
[165] NCD. (2005, June 13). The current state of transportation for people with disabilities in the United States.www.ncd.gov/newsroom/publications/2005/pdf/current_state.pdf.
[166] Ibid.
[167] Hartnett, J., & Helfer, B. (2004, March 18). Transportation: The vehicle to getting there. 2004 Disability Navigator Training Program, Audio Conference Series. Law, Health Policy & Disability Center, University of Iowa. www.disability.law.uiowa.edu/dpn/docs/2003-04ac_dpnacs/03182004/
audioconference20040318.doc.
[168] Ibid.
[169] NOD. (2000, May). N.O.D./Harris 2000 survey of Americans with disabilities.
[170] Layton, L. (2006, January 14). Disabled riders stranded by Metro. Washington Post (pp. A1, A10).
[171] Ibid.
[172] U.S. Department of Transportation, Bureau of Transportation Statistics. Transportation difficulties keep over half a million at home.
[173] Ibid.
[174] Ibid.
[175] GAO. (2004, February 24). Transportation-disadvantaged populations: Federal agencies are taking steps to assist states and local agencies in coordinating transportation services. Washington, DC: Author. www.gao.gov/new.items/d04420r.pdf.
[176] Ibid.
[177] Ibid.
[178] Ibid.
[179] Committee on Transportation and Infrastructure, Subcommittee on Education and the Workforce, Joint Hearing on Coordinating Human Services Transportation. (May 2003). www.house.gov/transportation/fullhearings/05-01-03/05-01-03memo.html.
[180] Ibid.
[181] Ibid.
[182] NCD. (2003, May 1). Testimony of David Wenzel. www.ncd.gov/newsroom/testimony/2003/wenzel_5-01-03.htm.
[183] NCD. (2005, December), p. 17.
[184] Ibid., p. 13.
[185] Ibid., p. 17.
[186] Ibid., p. 14.
[187] Pew Center on the States. (2006).
[188] Henry J. Kaiser Foundation. (2005, February). Navigating Medicare and Medicaid 2005. Prepared by Bob Williams, et al. Washington, DC: Kaiser Foundation.
[188] Ibid.
[189] NCD. (2005, December).
[190] Ibid.
[191] Ibid.
[192] Ibid., p. 35.
[193] Ibid.
[194] O’Shaughnessy, C. (2003, May 14). Long-term care chart book: Persons served, payors and spending. CRS #RS21518. Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service.
[195] Tritz, K. (updated 2004, February 27). Long-term care: Consumer directed services under Medicaid. CRS #RL32219. Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service.
[196] Edlund, B. J., et al. (2003, May 31). Long-term care planning for baby boomers: Addressing an uncertain future. Online Journal of Issues in Nursing, 8(2), Manuscript 2. www.nursingworld.org/ojin/topic21/tpc21_2.htm.
[197] Ibid.
[198] Ibid.
[199] Ibid.
[200] Ibid.
[201] Ibid.
[202] Smith, V. K., & Moody, G. (2005, February). Medicaid in 2005: Principles and proposals for reform. Prepared for the National Governors Association. Lansing, MI: Health Management Associates.
[203] Ibid.
[204] Ibid.
[205] Ibid., p. 22.
[206] Ibid.
[207] Pew Center on the States. (2006).
[208] Henry J. Kaiser Foundation. (2005, February).
[209] Ibid.
[210] Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS). (2005, April 27). Testimony of Mark B. McClellan, M.D., Ph.D., Administrator, before the Subcommittee on Health, House Committee on Energy and Commerce, hearing on long-term care and Medicaid: Better quality and sustainability by giving more control to people with a disability.
[211] Ibid.
[212] Komisar, H. L., et al. (2005, Summer). Unmet long-term care needs: An analysis of Medicare-Medicaid dual eligibles. Inquiry Journal, 42(2), 171–182.
[213] Ibid.
[214] Ibid.
[215] Ibid., p. 25.
[216] www.cms.hhs.gov/medicaid/1915c/.
[217] GAO. (2003, June). Long term care, federal oversight of growing Medicaid home and community-based waivers should be strengthened. Washington, DC: Author.
[218] CMS (2005, April 27).
[219] Ibid.
[220] Ibid.
[222] Ibid.
[223] Ibid.
[224] New Hampshire [§1915(c) new waiver, approved 12/16/02, effective 1/1/03]; South Carolina [§1915(c) new waiver, approved 3/11/03, effective 5/1/03]; Louisiana [§1915(c) new waiver, approved 4/24/03, effective 4/24/03]; North Carolina [§1915(c) new waiver, approved 12/23/03, effective 1/1/04] [§1915(b)/(c) new waiver, approved 10/6/04, effective 4/1/05]; Florida [§1115 amendment to Cash and Counseling, approved 5/30/03, effective 5/30/03]; Maryland [§1915(c) new waiver, approved 10/21/04, effective 7/1/05]; California [§1115 new demonstration, approved 7/30/04, effective 8/1/05]; Delaware [(§1915(b)/(c) new waiver, approved 11/12/04, effective 12/1/04]; New Jersey [§1115 amendment to Cash and Counseling, approved 12/15/04, effective date pending receipt of Operational Protocol]; Connecticut [§1915(c) new waiver, approved 1/14/05, effective 2/1/05].
[225] P.L. 90-248, 81 Stat. 821. (1968).
[226] Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1981 (P.L. 97-35).
[227] Home and Community-Based Services: Medicaid research and demonstration waivers, chart of state participation. (2004, November). www.pascenter.org/demo_waivers.
[228] Section 4442.5(B)(5) of the State Medicaid Manual.
[229] Burke, S., Feder, J., and Van de Water, P. (eds.). (2006). National Academy of Social Insurance (NASI) Study Panel Reports on Long-Term Care. Developing a better long-term care policy: A vision and strategy for America’s future. Washington: DC: NASI.
[230] Ibid.
[231] Ibid.
[232] Ibid., p. 21.
[233] Smith & Moody. (2005, February).
[234] Merlis, M. (1999, September). Financing long-term care in the twenty-first century: Public and private roles. Washington, DC: Institute for Health Policy Solutions.
[235] Ibid.
[237] Mathmatica. (2003, January 1). Lessons from the implementation of Cash and Counseling in Arkansas, Florida and New Jersey. www.cashandcounseling.org/search?TextIndex=abuse+funds.
[238] NCD (2005, December), p. 21.
[239] Ibid.
[240] Ibid., p. 29.
[241] Ibid., p. 21.
[242] Ibid.
[243] Mendelsohn, S. (2006, June). Personal communication.
[244] Social Security Administration (SSA). Retrieved January 15, 2008, from www.ssa.gov/dibplan/dqualify.htm.
[245] Ibid.
[246] Mendelsohn, S. (2006, June).
[247] Ibid.
[248] COBRA, §87 and §88. www.dol.gov/ebsa/faqs/faq_consumer_cobra.html.
[249] Mendelsohn, S. (2006, June).
[250] Wittaker, J. M. (updated July 15, 2005). Security Disability Insurance (SSDI) and Medicare: The 24-month waiting period for SSDI beneficiaries under age 65. CRS Report for Congress, RS22195. Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service.
[251] Ibid.
[252] Ibid.
[253] Ibid.
[254] Mendelsohn, S. (2006, June).
[255] Ibid.
[256] GAO. (2003, February). A new approach to disability determination. The Social Security definition of disability.
[257] Ibid.
[258] GAO. (2004, July). 2003 SSI Annual Report, Section II.C. FY 2005 APP, at 20.
[259] Ibid.
[260] Ibid.
[261] SSA. (2007). SSI Annual Statistical Report 2005. http://www.ssa.gov/policy/docs/statcomps/ssi_asr/2005/index.html.
[262] Ticket to Work and Work Incentives Advisory Panel, SSA. (2004, February)..www.ssa.gov/work/panel/panel_documents/pdf_versions/CrisisEnParticipation.pdf.
[263] Ibid.
[264] Ibid.
[265] Baldwin, M. L., & Johnson, W. G. (1998). Dispelling the myths about work disability. In T. Thomason et al., eds, New approaches to dualities in the workplace. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. 53–55.
[266] Ibid.
[267] Skoto, B., et al. (2006, January).
[268] Ibid.
[269] Ibid.
[270] Ibid.
[271] Ibid.
[272] GAO. (2005, May). Social Security Disability Insurance, SSA actions could enhance assistance to claimants with inflammatory bowel disease and other impairments. GAO-05-495. Washington, DC: Author. www.gao.gov/new.items/d05495.pdf.
[273] Ibid.
[274] Burkhauser, R., Daly, M., and Houtenville, A. (2001). How working age people with disabilities fared over the 1990s business cycle. In Peter P. Budetti, Richard V. Burkhauser, Janice M. Gregory, and H. Allan Hunt, eds. Ensuring health and income security for an aging workforce. Kalamazoo, MI: W.E. Upjohn Institute for Employment Research. 291–346.
[275] W.E. Upjohn Institute for Employment Research. (2003). The decline in employment of people with disabilities: A policy puzzle. Stapleton, D., & Burkhauser, R. (Eds.). Kalamazoo, MI: Upjohn Institute. www.ilr.cornell.edu/ped/dep/files/2001PolicyInstitute_SampleChapter.pdf.
[276] GAO. (2003, April). Social Security and minorities: Earnings, disability incidence, and mortality are key factors that influence taxes paid and benefits received. GAO-03-387. Washington, DC: Author.
[277] Ibid.
[278] Ibid.
[279] Ibid.
[280] GAO. (2004, December 10). SSA’s disability programs: Improvements could increase the usefulness of electronic data for program oversight. GAO-05-100R. Washington, DC: Author.
[281] Ibid.
[282] Ibid.
[283] Ibid.
[284] GAO. (2005). Social Security Administration: Better planning could make ticket program more effective. Congressional Briefing. GAO-05-248.
[285] The GAO 2005 report included a review of past recommendations from the advisory panel.
[286] GAO. (2005).
[287] Hartnett, J. (2006).
[288] Mendelsohn, S. (2006). Role of the tax code in asset development for people with disabilities. Disability Studies Quarterly, 26(1). www.dsq-sds.org.
[289] Farmer, P. (2005). Pathologies of power: Health, human rights, and the new war on the poor. Berkeley: University of California Press.
[290] Dohan, D. (2003). The price of poverty: Money, work, and culture in the Mexican American barrio. Berkeley: University of California Press.
[291] NCD. (2005, December).
[292] Herb, M., Miller, E., & O’Hara, A. (2000, June). Housing Crisis Continues Findings from Priced Out in 2000. In Opening Doors, Issue 14.
[293] Andersen, M. L., & Collins, P. H. (eds.). (1992). Race, class, and gender. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
[294] U.S. Census Bureau. (2003, March), p. 10.
[295] U.S. Census Bureau, U.S. Department of Commerce Economics and Statistics Administration. (2005, July), p. 5.
[296] Ibid.
[297] Shackleton & Foertsch. (2005).
[298] U.S. Census Bureau, U.S. Department of Commerce Economics and Statistics Administration. (2005, July).
[299] Oliver, M. L., & Shapiro, T. M. (1995). Black wealth, white wealth. New York: Routledge.
[300] Shapiro, T. M. (2004). The hidden cost of being African American: How wealth perpetuates inequality. New York: Oxford University Press.
[301] Sherraden, M., McBride, A., Johnson, E., Hanson, S., Ssewamala, F., & Shanks, T. R. (2005). Savings in low-income households: Evidence from interviews with participants in the American Dream Demonstration. St. Louis, MO: Center for Social Development, George Warren Brown School of Social Work, Washington University in St. Louis.
[302] Mendelsohn. (2006). Role of the tax code.
[303] Hartnett, J. (2006, October). Educating democracy: Tax and financial service needs of Americans with disabilities. A Report to the Ford Foundation Based on the 2006 Taxfacts+ Campaign Four City Pilot. Washington, DC: National Disability Institute and the Law, Health Policy & Disability Center, University of Iowa College of Law. www.reitour.org.[Contractor]
[304] Mendelsohn, S. (2005). Disability as an emerging market segment. A meeting of the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation and the National Disability Institute. Washington, DC: National Cooperative Bank Development Corporation (October 31, 2005, Presentation).
[305] The FCDCU is part of the Asset Accumulation and Tax Policy Project at the Law, Health Policy & Disability Center, University of Iowa, College of Law, under a grant from the National Institute of Disability Research and Rehabilitation.
[306] Schmeling, J., Schartz, H., Morris, M., & Blanck, P. (2006, January). Tax credits and asset accumulation: Findings from the 2004 N.O.D./Harris survey of Americans with disabilities. Disability Studies Quarterly 26(1),1041–5718.
[307] Sard, B., & Fischer, W. (revised 2004, March 24). Administration seeks deep cuts in housing vouchers and conversion of program to a block grant. Center on Budget and Policy Priorities. www.cbpp.org/2-12-04hous.htm.
[308] Disability Policy Seminar—Housing for people with disabilities: The crisis. (2005). Participants: The Arc, AAMR, AUCD, United Cerebral Palsy, NACDD. www.nacdd.org/images2/pdfs/FS%20Housing%202005.pdf.
[309] Ibid.
[310] Olmstead v. L.C. ex rel. Zimring, 527 U.S. 581, 119 S.Ct. 2176, 67 USLW 3683, 9 A.D. Cases 705, 99 Cal. Daily Op. Serv. 4859, 144 L.Ed.2d 540, 1999 CJ C.A.R. 3627, 67 USLW 4567, 1999 Daily Journal D.A.R. 6263, 15 NDLR P 130.
[311] NCB Development Corporation. (2002). Home access network. Washington, DC: NCB. Retrieved from www.home-access.org/natlpic.asp.
[312] The Urban Institute. (2005, May). Discrimination against persons with disabilities: Barriers at every step. Prepared for Office of Policy Development and Research, U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development by Margery Austin Turner et al. Washington, DC: The Urban Institute. The study was designed to advance the testing method of using paired testing to measure discrimination against people with disabilities, for research and enforcement purposes.
[313] Ibid., p. 35.
[314] Ibid., p. 42.
[315] Ibid., p. 45.
[316] NCB Development Corporation. (2002).
[317] U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS). (2006). Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA), Center for Mental Health Services (CMS). Transforming Housing for People With Psychiatric Disabilities Report. Prepared by Bazelon Center. HHS publication No. 4173. Rockville, MD: HHS.
[318] Ibid., p. 3.
[319] National Low Income Housing Coalition (NLIHC). (Spring 2002). The NIMBY Report: The Olmstead factor, integrating housing for people with disabilities. Published by NLIHC with funding from Washington Mutual Foundation.
[320] Ibid., p. 4.
[321] Technical Assistance Collaborative (TAC). (2005, August). Priced out in 2004. Washington, DC. The TAC biennial study verifies that low-income people with disabilities are experiencing a national housing affordability crisis. Published in collaboration with the CCD Housing Task Force with funding from the Melville Charitable Trust.
[322] Ibid.
[323] Law, Health Policy & Disability Center. (2004, April 15). 2004 Disability Program Navigator Training: Affordable and accessible housing. Iowa City, IA: University of Iowa. http://disability.law.uiowa.edu/dpn/audio/2003-04_audioconf/04152004.html.
[324] NCB Development Corporation. (2002).
[325] Ibid.
[326] Ibid.
[327] Ibid.
[328] Ibid.
[329] Ibid.
[330] Ibid.
[331] News Release: Statement by Henry Cisneros on worst case needs in housing. (1996, March 14). U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD).
[332] Edgar, E, O’Hara, A., Smith, B., & Zovistoski, A. (1999). Priced Out in 1998. From http://www.tacinc.org/Pubs/PricedOut.htm.
[333] HUD. (1999, March). Waiting in vain: An update on America’s rental housing crisis. Washington, DC: Author.
[334] HUD. (1998, March). Recent research results: A newsletter from HUD Office of Policy Development and Research. Washington, DC: Author.
[335] 24 CFR §982.503.
[336] Sard & Fischer. (revised 2004, March 24).
[337] Ibid.
[338] Ibid
[339] P.L. 90-248, 81 Stat. 821 (1968).
[340] Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1981 (P.L. 97-35).
[341] Home and Community-Based Services: Medicaid research and demonstration waivers, chart of state participation. (2004, November). www.pascenter.org/demo_waivers.
[342] Saegert, S., & Benitez, L. (June 2004). Limited equity housing cooperatives. New York: City University of New York Graduate Center for the Taconic Foundation.
[343] Ibid., p. 22.
[344] Cotton, M., Saegert, S., & Reiss, D. (1996). No more “housing of last resort”: The importance of affordability and resident participation in in-rem housing. New York: The Task Force on City Owned Property.
[345] NCD. (2002, July 26). Achieving independence: The challenge for the 21st century; National disability policy: A progress report, December 2000–December 2001. Washington, DC: Author. www.ncd.gov/newsroom/publications/2002/progressreport_07-26-02.htm.
[346] Wright, B. (1997, Spring/Summer). There’s no place like home: National program provides mortgage funds to people with disabilities. Point of Departure, Publication of the Technical Assistance about Transition and the Rehabilitation Act Project, 3(1). PACER Center. www.pacer.org/tatra/pod_summer97.htm#home.
[347] Ibid.
[348] Ibid.
[349] Ibid.
[350] Ibid.
[351] Disability Policy Seminar. (2005).
[352] Ibid.
[353] O’Hara, A., & Miller, E. (2000). Going it alone: The struggle to expand housing opportunities for people with disabilities. Washington, DC: Technical Assistance Collaborative and Consortium for Citizens with Disabilities Housing Task Force. From www.c-c-d.org/task_forces/housing/going_alone.htm.
[354] According to CCD members’ and affiliates’ responses in a TAC survey dated July 1999.
[355] According to HUD data regarding Section 8 Mainstream applicants, years 1997, 1998, and 1999.
[356] Ibid.
[357] STARTing line, first quarter newsletter topics. www.startsaving.la.gov/savings/news.jsp.
[358] Ibid.
[359] Clancy, M., et al. (2005, February). Section 529 savings plans, access to post-secondary education, and universal asset building. www.newamerica.net/publications/policy/section_529_savings_plans_access_to_post_secondary_education_and_universal_asset_building.
[360] Ibid.
[361] Kendrick, D. (2002). One state’s solution to getting more people on line. AFB Access World. www.afb.org/afbpress/pub.asp?DocID=aw020203.
[362] Jenson, A., & Folkemer, D. (revised draft 2002, July 26). Developing fiscal estimates for a Medicaid Buy-in Program: Using data from early implementer states. www.uiowa.edu/~lhpdc/work/II_Policies/Estimating_Fiscal_Impact.doc.
[363] University of Nebraska Public Policy Center. (2002, December). The impact of earnings of Nebraskans with disabilities on their eligibility for selected services and programs. Prepared for Medicaid Infrastructure Grant Program, Nebraska Department of Health and Human Services. http://ppc.unl.edu/reports_publications/price_program_integration.pdf.
[364] Community Transportation Association. (2001) Maryland passes legislation establishing job access transportation program. www.ctaa.org/adaview.asp?pageid=776.
[365] Ibid.
[366] Cooper, A. (2005, May). Rethinking rehab: Using vocational rehabilitation funds to start Individual Development Accounts. EQUITY e-Newsletter. www.wid.org/publications/?page=equity&sub=200505&topic=pm.
[368] Social Security Administration. (1999). Number of SSI recipients by category and age, December 1975 to September 1999. Retrieved January 8, 2008, from http://www.ncd.gov/newsroom/publications/2005/ssa-promoteemployment.htm
[369] Case 1 and Case 3 only.
[370] OMB. (October 29, 1992). Guidelines and Discount Rates for Benefit-Cost Analysis of Federal Programs. (Circular No. A-94 Revised, Transmittal Memo No. 64). Washington, DC.
[371] HHS, CMS. (March 23, 2005). 2005 Annual Report of the Boards of Trustees of the Federal Hospital Insurance and Federal Supplementary Medical Insurance Trust Funds. Rockville, MD. http://www.cms.hhs.gov/ReportsTrustFunds/
[372] SSA, Office of the Chief Actuary. (2004, September). Unisex life expectations at birth and age 65. Baltimore, MD. (Actuarial Note No. 2004.2).
[373] SSA , Office of the Chief Actuary. (2005) Actuarial Study No. 119: Short-range actuarial projections of the old-age, survivors, and disability insurance program. SSA. Baltimore, MD.
[374] Their only other source of income, SSI, is not taxable.
[375] However, we note that a tax credit on income taxes paid by businesses offsets much of this contribution.
[376] Their only other source of income, SSI, is not taxable.
[377] As is the case with other payroll taxes, there is likely some federal and state tax revenue offset associated with these high payroll expenses.
[378] These same time frames will apply in Case Study 3.
[379] See Executive Order 12291, Federal Regulation (1981, February 17); and Executive Order 12866, Regulatory Planning and Review (1993, September 30).